UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


t> 


THE  STORY  OF 

EXTINCT    CIVILIZATIONS 

OF  THE  WEST 


BY 


ROBERT  E.  ANDERSON,  M.A.,  F.A.S. 

AUTHOR   OF 
EXTINCT   CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE   EAST 


Venient  annis  saecula  seris 
Quibus  Oteanus  vincula  rerum 
Laxet,  et  ingens  pateat  tellus 
Tethys  que  novos  detegat  orbes. 

—  SENECA. 


NEW  YORK 
MCMXII 


31 


0 


28 


COPYRIGHT,  1903,  BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


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CONTENTS 

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"  '  CHAPTER  PAGE 

_t-  INTRODUCTION 9 

,         I.  PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  OF  AMERICA     .     19 

Q          II.  "DISCOVERY   OF  THE  WORLD  AND  OF  MAN"  .      36 

III.  THE  EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  .     54 

)     IV.     AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY 71 

V.  MEXICO   BEFORE    THE    SPANISH    INVASION            .      88 

VI.  ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS    ....  106 

VII.  CORTES  AND  MONTEZUMA         ....  135 

VIII.  BALBOA  AND  THE  ISTHMUS       ....  164 

IX.  EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERU      .        .        .  172 

X.  PlZARRO    AND    THE    INCAS               ....    l86 


fl 


MAPS,   ETC. 

PAGE 

Prehistoric  Structure,  Uxmal  (Yucatan)   .         .  Frontispiece 
Imaginary  Continent,  South  of  Africa  and  Asia         .         .     12 
Remains  of  a  Norse  Church  at  Katortuk,  Greenland         .     21 
Map  of  Vinland       ........     24 

The  Dighton  Stone  in  the  Taunton  River,  Massachusetts     27 

The  Dighton  Stone.     Fig.  2 28 

Cipher  Autograph  of  Columbus        .         .         .         .         .46 

Chulpa  or  Stone  Tomb  of  the  Peruvians  .         .         .         -87 
Quetzalcoatl    .........     93 

Ancient  Bridge  near  Tezcuco  .          .         .         .         .         .    100 

Teocalli,  Aztec  Temple  for  Human  Sacrifices  .         .          .   105 
Monolith  Doorway.     Near  Lake  Titicaca.     Fig.  I  .         .173 
Image  over  the  Doorway  shown  in  Fig.  I.     Near  Lake 

Titicaca.      Fig.  2  .         .         .         .         .         .175 

The  Quipu      .........    180 

Gold  Ornament  (?  Zodiac)  from  a  Tomb  at  .Cuzco    .         .   182 


EXTINCT   CIVILIZATIONS   OF 
THE  WEST 


INTRODUCTION 

THROUGHOUT  all  the  periods  of  European  his- 
tory, ancient  or  modern,  no  age  has  been  more  re- 
markable for  events  of  first-rate  importance  than 
the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  rise  of 
the  New  Learning,  the  "discovery  of  the  world 
and  of  man,"  the  displacement  of  many  outworn 
beliefs,  these  with  other  factors  produced  an 
awakening  that  startled  kings  and  nations.  Then 
felt  they  like  Balboa,  when 

with  eagle  eyes 

He  stared  at  the  Pacific,  and  all  liis  men 
Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien. 

It  was  at  this  historical  juncture  that  the  "middle 
ages"  came  to  an  end,  and  modern  Europe  had 
its  beginning.  (See  Chapter  II.) 

Why  was  Europe  so  long  in  discovering  the 
vast  Continent  which  all  the  time  lay  beyond  the 
Western  Ocean?  Simply  because  every  skipper 
and  every  "Board  of  Admiralty"  believed  that  this 
world  on  which  we  live  and  move  is  flat  and  level. 
They  did  not  at  all  realize  the  fact  that  it  is  ball- 

9 


io    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

shaped ;  and  that  when  a  ball  is  very  large  (say,  as 
large  as  a  balloon ) ,  then  any  small  portion  of  the 
surface  must  appear  flat  and  level  to  a  fly  or 
''mite"  traveling  in  that  vicinity.  Homer  believed 
that  our  world  is  a  flat  and  level  plain,  with  a 
great  river,  Oceanus,  flowing  round  it ;  and  for 
many  ages  that  seemed  a  very  natural  and  suffi- 
cient theory.  The  Pythagoreans,  it  is  true,  argued 
that  our  earth  must  be  spherical,  but  why  ?  Oh, 
said  they,  because  in  geometry  the  sphere  is  the 
"most  perfect"  of  all  solid  figures.  Aristotle,  be- 
ing scientific,  gave  better  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  earth  is  spherical  or  ball-shaped.  He  said 
the  shadow  of  the  earth  is  always  round  like  the 
shadow  of  a  ball ;  and  the  shadow  of  the  earth  can 
be  seen  during  any  eclipse  of  the  moon ;  therefore, 
all  who  see  that  shadow  on  the  moon's  disk  know, 
or  ought  to  know,  that  the  earth  is  ball-shaped. 
Another  reason  given  by  Aristotle  is  that  the  alti- 
tude of  any  star  above  the  horizon  changes  when 
the  observer  travels  north  or  south.  For  example, 
if  at  London  a  star  appears  to  be  40°  above  the 
northern  horizon,  and  at  York  the  same  star  at 
the  same  instant  appears  42^2°,  it  is  evident  that 
2.y2°  is  the  difference  (increase)  of  altitude  at 
York  compared  with  London.  Such  an  observa- 
tion shows  that  the  road  from  London  to  York  is 
not  over  a  flat,  level  plane,  but  over  the  curved 
surface  of  a  sphere,  the  arc  of  a  circle,  in  fact. 

Herodotus,  the  father  of  history,  was  a  good 
geographer  and  an  experienced  traveler,  yet  his 
only  conception  of  the  world  was  as  a  flat,  wide- 
extending  surface.  In  Egypt  he  was  told  how 
Pharaoh  Necho  had  sent  a  crew  of  Phenicians  to 
explore  the  coast  of  Africa  by  setting  out  from  the 


INTRODUCTION  II 

Red  Sea,  and  how  they  sailed  south  till  they  had 
the  sun  on  their  right  hand.  "Absurd!"  says 
Herodotus,  in  his  naive  manner,  "this  story  I  can 
not  believe."  In  Egypt,  as  in  Greece  or  Europe 
generally,  the  sun  rises  on  the  left  hand,  and  at 
noon  casts  a  shadow  pointing  north ;  whereas  in 
South  Africa  the  sun  at  noon  casts  a  shadow 
pointing  south,  and  sunrise  is  therefore  on  the 
right  hand.  The  honest  sailors  had  told  the  truth  ; 
they  had  merely  "crossed  the  line,"  without  know- 
ing it.  If  Herodotus  had  known  that  the  world 
was  spherical  or  ball-shaped,  he  could  easily  have 
understood  that  by  traveling  due  south  the  sun 
must  at  last  appear  at  noon  to  the  north  instead 
of  the  south.  A  counterpart  to  the  story  of  the 
Phenician  sailors  occurs  in  Pliny :  he  tells  how 
some  ambassadors  came  to  the  Roman  Emperor 
Claudius  from  an  island  in  the  south  of  Asia,  and 
when  in  Italy  were  much  astonished  to  see  the 
sun  at  noon  to  the  south,  casting  shadows  to  the 
north.  They  also  wondered,  he  says,  to  see  the 
Great  Bear  and  other  groups  of  stars  which  had 
never  been  visible  in  their  native  land  (Nat.  Hist., 
vi,  22). 

That  there  were  islands  or  even  a  continent  in 
the  Western  Ocean  was  a  tradition  not  infrequent 
in  classical  and  medieval  times,  as  we  shall  pres- 
ently see,  but  to  place  a  continent  in  the  Southern 
Ocean  was  a  greater  stretch  of  imagination.  The 
great  outstanding  problem  of  the  sources  of  the 
Nile  probably  suggested  this  Southern  Continent 
to  some.  Ptolemy,  the  great  Egyptian  geogra- 
pher, even  formed  the  conjecture  that  the  South- 
ern Continent  was  joined  to  Africa  by  a  broad 
isthmus,  as  indicated  in  certain  maps.  Such  a 


12     EXTINCT   CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE   WEST 

connection  of  the  two  continents  would  at  once 
dispose  of  the  story  that  the  Phenician  sailors 
had  "doubled  the  Cape."  In  several  maps  after 
the  time  of  Columbus,  Australia  is  extended  west- 
ward in  order  to  pass  muster  for  the  Southern 
Continent. 

It  is  with  a  Western  Continent,  however,  that 
we  are  now  mainly  concerned.    What  lands  were 


Imaginary  Continent,  south  of  Africa  and  Asia.  [  The  cardi- 
nal points  are  shown  by  the  four  winds.]  Beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  word  Brumse  =  the  winter  solstices. 


imagined  by  the  ancients  in  the  far  West  under 
the  setting  sun  ?  The  mighty  ocean  beyond  Spain 
was  to  the  Greeks  and  Latins  a  place  of  dread 
and  mystery. 

"Stout  was  his  heart  and  girt  with  triple  brass,"  says  the 
Roman  poet,  "who  first  hazarded  his  weak  vessel  on  the 
pitiless  ocean." 

Even  the  western  parts  of  theMediterranean  were 
shrunk  from,  according  to  the  Odyssey,  without 


INTRODUCTION  13 

speaking  of  the  horrors  of  the  great  ocean  beyond. 
"Beyond  Gades,"  i.  e.,  scarcely  outside  of  the  Pil- 
lars of  Hercules,  the  extreme  limit  of  the  ancient 
world,  "no  man,"  said  Pindar,  "however  daring, 
could  pass ;  only  a  god  might  voyage  those 
waters !" 

In  spite  of  the  dread  which  the  ancient  mariners 
felt  for  the  great  Western  Ocean,  their  poets 
found  it  replete  with  charm  and  mystery.  The 
imagination  rested  upon  those  golden  sunsets, 
and  the  tales  of  marvel  which,  after  long  intervals, 
sea-borne  sailors  had  told  of  distant  lands  in  the 
West.  The  poets  placed  there  the  happy  home 
destined  for  the  souls  of  heroes.  Thus  (Odys. 
iv,  561 )  : 

No  snow 

Is  there,  nor  yet  great  storm  nor  any  rain, 
But  always  ocean  sendeth  forth  the  breeze 
Of  the  shrill  West,  and  bloweth  cool  on  men. 

So  far  Homer.  His  contemporary,  Hesiod, 
thus  describes  the  Elysian  Fields  as  islands  under 
the  setting  sun : 

There  on  Earth's  utmost  limits  Zeus  assigned 
A  life,  a  seat,  distinct  from  human  kind, 
Beside  the  deepening  whirlpools  of  the  Main, 
In  those  blest  Isles  where  Saturn  holds  his  reign, 
Apart  from  Heaven's  immortals  calm  they  share, 
A  rest  unsullied  by  the  clouds  of  care: 
And  yearly  thrice  with  sweet  luxuriance  crown'd 
Springs  the  ripe  harvest  from  the  teeming  Ground. 

The  poet  Pindar  places  in  the  same  mysterious 
West  "the  castle  of  Chronos"  (i.  e.,  "Old  Time"), 
"where  o'er  the  Isles  of  the  Blest  ocean  breezes 


14    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

blow,  and  flowers  gleam  with  gold,  some  from 
the  land  on  glistening  trees,  while  others  the  water 
feeds ;  and  with  bracelets  of  these  they  entwine 
their  hands,  and  make  crowns  for  their  heads." 

Vesper,  the  star  of  evening,  was  called  Hes- 
perus by  the  Greeks ;  and  hence  the  Hesperides, 
daughters  of  the  Western  Star,  had  the  task  of 
watching  the  golden  apples  planted  by  the  god- 
dess Hera  in  the  garden  of  the  gods,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river  Oceanus.  One  of  the  labors  of 
Hercules  was  to  fetch  three  of  those  mystic  apples 
for  the  king  of  Mycenae.  The  poet  Euripides 
thus  refers  to  the  Gardens  of  the  West,  when  the 
Chorus  wish  to  fly  "over  the  Adriatic  wave'' : 

Or  to  the  famed  Hesperian  plains, 
Whose  rich  trees  bloom  with  gold, 

To  join  the  grief-attuned  strains 
My  winged  progress  hold; 

Beyond  whose  shores  no  passage  gave 

The  Ruler  of  the  purple  wave. 

Of  all  the  lands  imagined  to  lie  in  the  Western 
Ocean  by  the  Greeks,  the  most  important  was 
"Atlantis."  Some  have  thought  it  may  possibly 
have  been  a  prehistoric  discovery  of  America. 
In  any  case  it  has  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  a 
good  many  modern  scientists.  The  tale  of  At- 
lantis we  owe  to  Plato  himself,  who  perhaps 
learned  it  in  Egypt,  just  as  Herodotus  picked  up 
there  the  account  of  the  circumnavigation  of 
Africa  by  the  Phenician  mariners. 

"When  Solon  was  in  Egypt,"  says  Plato,  "he 
had  talk  with  an  aged  priest  of  Sais  who  said, 
'You  Greeks  are  all  children :  you  know  but  of 
one  deluge,  whereas  there  have  been  many  de- 


INTRODUCTION  15 

structions  of  mankind  both  by  flood  and  fire.'  .  .  . 
In  the  distant  Western  Ocean  lay  a  continent 
larger  than  Libya  and  Asia  together."  .  .  . 

In  this  Atlantis  there  had  grown  up  a  mighty  state  whose 
kings  were  descended  from  Poseidon  and  had  extended 
their  sway  over  many  islands  and  over  a  portion  of  the 
great  continent;  even  Libya  up  to  the  gates  of  Egypt,  and 
Europe  as  far  as  Tyrrhenia,  submitted  to  their  sway.  .  .  . 
Afterward  came  a  day  and  night  of  great  floods  and  earth- 
quakes; Atlantis  disappeared,  swallowed  by  the  waves. 

Geologists  and  geographers  have  seriously 
tried  to  find  evidence  of  Atlantis  having  existed 
in  the  Atlantic,  whether  as  a  portion  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  or  as  a  huge  island  in  the  ocean 
which  could  have  served  as  a  stepping-stone  be- 
tween the  Western  World  and  the  Eastern.  From 
a  series  of  deep-sea  soundings  ordered  by  the 
British,  American,  and  German  Governments,  it 
is  now  very  well  known  that  in  the  middle  of  the 
Atlantic  basin  there  is  a  ridge,  running  north  and 
south,  whose  depth  is  less  than  1,000  fathoms, 
while  the  valleys  east  and  west  of  it  average  3,000 
fathoms.  At  the  Azores  the  North  Atlantic  ridge 
becomes  broader.  The  theory  is  that  a  part  of  the 
ridge-plateau  was  the  Atlantis  of  Plato  that  "dis- 
appeared swallowed  by  the  waves."  (Nature,  xv, 
158,  553,  xxvii,  25  ;  Science,  June  29,  1883.) 

Buffon,  the  naturalist,  with  reference  to  fauna 
and  flora,  dated  the  separation  of  the  new  and 
old  world  "from  the  catastrophe  of  Atlantis" 
(Epoques,  ix,  570)  ;  and  Sir  Charles  Lyell  con- 
fessed a  temptation  to  "accept  the  theory  of  an 
Atlantis  island  in  the  northern  Atlantic."  (Geol- 
ogy, p.  141.) 


1 6    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

The  following  account  "from  an  historian  of 
the  fourth  century  B.  c."  is  another  possible  refer- 
ence to  a  portion  of  America — from  a  translation 
"delivered  in  English,"  1576. 

Selenus  told  Midas  that  without  this  worlde  there  is  a 
continent  or  percell  of  dry  lande  which  in  greatnesse  (as 
hee  reported)  was  unmeasureable;  that  it  nourished  and 
maintained,  by  the  benifite  of  the  greene  meadowes  and 
pasture  plots,  sundrye  bigge  and  mighty  beastes;  that  the 
men  which  inhabite  the  same  climate  exceede  the  stature 
of  us  twise,  and  yet  the  length  of  there  life  is  not  equale  to 
ours. 

The  historian  Plutarch,  in  his  Morals,  gives  an 
account  of  Ogygia,  with  an  illusion  to  a  continent, 
possibly  America : 

An  island,  Ogygia,  lies  in  the  arms  of  the  Ocean,  about 
five  days'  sail  west  from  Britain.  .  .  .  The  adjacent  sea 
is  termed  the  Saturnian,  and  the  continent  by  which  the 
great  sea  is  circularly  environed  is  distant  from  Ogygia 
about  5,000  stadia,  but  from  the  other  islands  not  so  far. 

.  .  One  of  the  men  paid  a  visit  to  the  great  island,  as 
they  called  Europe.  From  him  the  narrator  learned  many 
things  about  the  state  of  men  after  death — the  conclusion 
being  that  the  souls  of  men  arrive  at  the  Moon,  wherein  lie 
the  Elysian  Fields  of  Homer. 

The  Greek  historian.  Diodorus  Siculus,  has  a 
similar  account  with  curious  details  of  an  "island" 
which  might  very  well  have  been  part  of  a  conti- 
nent. Columbus  believed  to  the  last  that  Cuba 
was  a  continent. 

In  the  ocean,  at  the  distance  of  several  days'  sailing  to 
the  west,  there  lies  an  island  watered  by  several  navigable 
rivers.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  hilly,  and  of  great  beauty.  .  .  . 


INTRODUCTION  17 

There  are  country  houses  handsomely  constructed,  with 
summer-houses  and  flower-beds.  The  hilly  district  is 
covered  with  dense  woods  and  fruit-trees  of  every  kind. 
The  inhabitants  spend  much  time  in  hunting  and  thus 
procure  excellent  food.  They  have  naturally  a  good  sup- 
ply of  fish,  their  shores  being  washed  by  the  ocean.  .  .  . 
In  a  word  this  island  seems  a  happy  home  for  gods  rather 
than  for  men  (v.  19). 

Another  Greek  writer,  Lucian,  in  one  of  his 
witty  dialogues,  refers  to  an  island  in  the  Atlantic, 
that  lies  eighty  days'  sail  westward  of  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules — the  extreme  limit  of  the  ancient 
world,  as  has  already  been  seen.  Readers  of 
Henry  Fielding  and  admirers  of  Squire  Western 
will  remember  how  in  the  London  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  the  limits  of  Piccadilly  westward 
was  a  tavern  at  Hyde  Park  corner  called  the  Her- 
cules' Pillars,  on  the  site  of  the  future  Apsley 
House.* 

Although  neither  Greek  nor  Roman  navigators 
were  likely  to  attempt  a  voyage  into  the  ocean 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  yet  a  trading  ves- 
sel from  Carthage  or  Phenicia  might  easily  have 
been  driven  by  an  easterly  gale  into,  or  even 
across,  the  Atlantic.  Some  involuntary  discov- 
eries were  no  doubt  due  to  this  chance,  and  the 
reports  brought  to  Europe  were  probably  the 
germs  of  such  tales  as  the  poets  invented  about 
the  fair  regions  of  the  West.  In  Celtic  literature, 
moreover,  "Avalon"  was  placed  far  under  the 
setting  sun  beyond  the  ocean — Avalon  or  "Glas- 
Inis"  being  to  the  bards  the  Land  of  the  Dead, 
marvelous  and  mysterious. 

*  Tom  Jones,  xvi.  chap.  2,  3,  etc. 
2 


1 8    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

In  English  literature  of  the  middle  ages  there 
is  a  remarkable  passage  relating  to  our  present 
subject,  which  was  written  long  before  that  rise 
of  the  New  Learning  mentioned  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter.  It  is  a  statement  made  by  Roger 
Bacon,  the  greatest  of  Oxonian  scholars  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  who,  long  before  the  Renas- 
cence, did  much  to  restore  the  study  of  science, 
especially  in  geography,  chronology,  and  optics. 
In  his  Opus  Majus,  the  elder  Bacon  wrote: 

More  than  the  fourth  part  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit 
is  still  unknown  to  us.  ...  It  is  evident  therefore  that 
between  the  extreme  West  and  the  confines  of  India,  there 
must  be  a  surface  which  comprises  more  than  half  the 
earth. 

Though  Roger  Bacon,  to  use  his  own  words, 
died  "unheard,  forgotten,  buried,"  our  recent  his- 
torians place  his  name  first  in  the  great  roll  of 
modern  science. 

There  now  remains  only  one  quotation  to  make 
from  the  ancients.  We  have  been  reserving  it 
for  two  reasons — first,  because  it  is  a  singularly 
happy  anticipation  of  the  discovery  of  the  New 
World,  so  happy  that  it  became  a  favorite  stanza 
with  the  discoverer  himself.  This  we  learn  from 
the  life  of  the  "Great  Admiral,"  written  by  his 
son  Ferdinand. 

Secondly,  because  it  adorns  our  title-page  and 
has  been  characterized  as  "a  lucky  prophecy" — 
written  in  the  first  century  A.  D.  The  author,  Sen- 
eca, was  a  dramatist  as  well  as  a  philosopher,  the 
lines  occurring  at  the  end  of  one  of  his  choruses — 
Medea,  376.  We  may  thus  translate  the  pro- 
phetic stanza: 


PRE-COLUMBIAN   DISCOVERIES  19 

For  at  a  distant  date  this  ancient  world 

Will  westward  stretch  its  bounds,  and  then  disclose 

Beyond  the  Main  a  vast  new  Continent, 

With  realms  of  wealth  and  might. 


CHAPTER   I 
PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  OF  AMERICA 

i.  Norse  Discovery. — By  glancing  at  a  map  of 
the  north  Atlantic,  the  reader  will  at  once  see 
that  the  natural  approach  from  Europe  to  the 
Western  Continent  was  by  Iceland  and  Green- 
land— especially  in  those  early  days  when  ocean 
navigation  was  unknown.  Iceland  is  nearer  to 
Greenland  than  to  Norway  ;  and  Greenland  is  part 
of  America.  But  in  Iceland  there  were  Celtic 
settlers  in  the  early  centuries ;  and  even  King 
Arthur,  according  to  the  history  of  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  sailed  north  to  that  "Ultima  Thule." 
During  the  ninth  century  a  Christian  community 
had  been  established  there  under  certain  Irish 
monks.  This  early  civilization,  however,  was 
destined  to  become  presently  extinct. 

It  was  in  A.  D.  875,  i.  e.,  during  the  reign  of 
Alfred  the  Great  in  England,  that  the  Norse  earl, 
Ingolf,  led  a  colony  to  Iceland.  More  strenuous 
and  savage  than  the  Christian  Celts  whom  they 
found  there,  the  latter  with  their  preaching  monks 
soon  sailed  to  the  south,  and  left  the  Northmen 
masters  of  the  island.  The  Norse  colony  under 
Ingolf  was  strongly  reenforced  by  Norwegians 
who  took  refuge  there  to  avoid  the  tyranny  of 


20    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

their  king,  Harold,  the  Fair-haired.  Ingolf  built 
the  town  Ingolfshof,  named  after  him,  and  also 
Reikiavik,  afterward  the  capital,  named  from  the 
"reek"  or  steam  of  its  hot  springs.  So  important 
did  this  colony  become  that  in  the  second  genera- 
tion the  population  amounted  to  60,000. 

Ingolf  was  admired  by  the  poet  James  Mont- 
gomery (not  to  be  confounded  with  Robert,  whom 
Macaulay  criticized  so  severely) ,  who  in  1819  thus 
wrote  of  him  and  his  island : 

There  on  a  homeless  soil  his  foot  he  placed, 
Framed  his  hut-palace,  colonized  the  waste, 
And  ruled  his  horde  with  patriarchal  sway 
— Where  Justice  reigns,  'tis  Freedom  to  obey.  .  .  . 
And  Iceland  shone  for  generous  lore  renowned, 
A  northern  light  when  all  was  gloom  around. 

The  next  year  after  Ingolf  had  come  to  Iceland,  Gunn- 
biorn,  a  hardy  Norseman,  driven  in  his  ship  westerly, 
sighted  a  strange  land.  .  .  .  About  half  a  century  later, 
judging  by  the  Icelandic  sagas,  we  learn  that  a  wind-tossed 
vessel  was  thrown  upon  a  coast  far  away  which  was  called 
"Mickle  Ireland"  (Irland  it  M ikla)—  [Winsor's  Hist.  Amer- 
ica, i,  61]. 

Gunnbiorn's  discovery  was  utilized  by  Erik  the 
Red,  another  sea-rover,  in  A.  D.  980,  who  sailed  to 
it  and,  after  three  years'  stay,  returned  with 
a  favorable  account — giving  it  the  fair  name 
Greenland.  The  Norse  established  two  centers  of 
population  on  Greenland.  It  is  now  believed  that 
after  doubling  Cape  Farewell,  they  built  their  first 
town  near  that  head  and  the  second  farther  north. 
The  former,  Eystribygd  (i.  e.,  "Easter  Bigging"), 
developed  into  a  large  colony,  having  in  the  four- 


PRE-COLUMBIAN   DISCOVERIES 


21 


teenth  century  190  settlements,  with  a  cathedral 
and  eleven  churches,  and  containing  two  cities 
and  three  or  four  monasteries.  The  second  town, 
Westribygd  (i.  e.,  "Wester  Digging")  had  grown 
to  ninety  settlements  and  four  churches  in  the 
same  time. 

The  germ  and  root  of  that  civilization  (after- 
ward extinct,  as  we  shall  see)  was  due  to  Leif  the 
son  of  Red  Erik,  who  visited  Norway,  the  mother- 
country,  at  the  very  close  of  the  tenth  century. 


Remains  of  a  Norse  Church  at  Katortuk,  Greenland. 

He  found  that  the  king  and  people  there  had  en- 
thusiastically embraced  the  new  religion,  Chris- 
tianity. Leif  presently  shared  their  fervor,  and 
decided  to  reject  Woden,  Thor,  and  the  other 
gods  of  old  Scandinavia.  A  priest  was  told  off 
to  accompany  Leif  back  to  Greenland,  and  preach 
the  new  faith.  It  was  thus  that  a  Christian  civil- 
ization first  found  footing  in  arctic  America. 

The  ruins  of  those  early  Christian  churches 
(see  illustration  above)  form  most  interesting 
objects  in  modern  Greenland ;  near  the  chief  ruin 
is  a  curious  circular  group  of  large  stones. 


22     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

The  poet  of  "Greenland,"  to  whom  we  have 
already  referred,  quotes  from  a  Danish  chronicle 
to  the  effect  that,  in  the  golden  age  of  the  colony, 
there  were  a  hundred  parishes  to  form  the  bishop- 
ric ;  and  that  the  see  was  ruled  by  seventeen  bish- 
ops from  A.  D.  1120  to  1408.  Bishop  Andrew  is 
the  last  mentioned,  ordained  in  1408  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Drontheim. 

From  the  same  authority  we  learn  that  accord- 
ing to  some  of  the  annals  "the  best  wheat  grew 
to  perfection  in  the  valleys ;  the  forests  were  ex- 
tensive ;  flocks  and  herds  were  numerous  and  very 
large  and  fat."  The  Cloister  of  St.  Thomas  was 
heated  by  pipes  from  a  warm  spring,  and  attached 
to  the  cloister  was  a  richly  cultivated  garden. 

After  Leif,  son  of  Erik,  had  introduced  Chris- 
tianity into  Greenland,  his  next  step  was  to  extend 
the  Norse  civilization  still  farther  within  the 
American  continent.  News  had  reached  him  of  a 
new  land,  with  a  level  coast,  lying  nine  days'  sail- 
ing southwest  of  Greenland.  Picking  thirty-five 
men,  Leif  started  for  further  exploration.  One 
part  of  the  new  country  was  barren  and  rocky, 
therefore  Leif  named  it  Helhiland  (i.  e.,  "Stone 
Land"),  which  appears  to  have  been  Newfound- 
land. Farther  south  they  found  a  sandy  shore, 
backed  by  a  level  forest  country,  which  Leif 
named  Markland  (i.  e.,  "Wood  Land"),  identified 
with  Nova  Scotia.  After  two  days'  sail,  accord- 
ing to  the  saga  account,  having  landed  and  ex- 
plored the  new  continent  along  the  banks  of  a 
river,  they  resolved  to  winter  there.  In  one  of 
these  explorations  a  German  called  Tyrker  found 
some  grapes  on  a  wild  vine,  and  brought  a  speci- 
men for  the  admiration  of  Leif  and  his  party. 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  23 

This  country  was  therefore  named  Finland  (i.  e., 
"Wine  Land"),  and  is  identified  with  New 
England,  part  of  Rhode  Island,  and  Massachu- 
setts.* 

Our  Greenland  poet  thus  refers  to  Leif's  land- 
ing: 

Wineland  the  glad  discoverers  called  that  shore, 
And  back  the  tidings  of  its  riches  bore ; 
But  soon  return'd  with  colonizing  bands. 

The  Norsemen  founded  a  regular  settlement  in 
Vinland,  establishing  there  a  Christian  commu- 
nity related  to  that  of  Greenland.  Leif's  brother, 
Korvald,  explored  the  interior  in  all  directions. 
With  the  natives,  who  are  called  "Skraelings"  in 
the  sagas,  they  traded  in  furs ;  these  people,  who 
seemed  dwarfish  to  the  Norsemen,  used  leathern 
boats  and  were  no  doubt  Eskimos : 

A  stunted,  stern,  uncouth,  amphibious  stock. 

The  principal  settler  in  Vinland  was  Thorfinn, 
an  Icelander,  who  had  married  a  daughter-in-law 
of  Erik  the  Red.  She  persuaded  Thorfinn  to  sail 
to  the  new  country  in  order  to  make  a  permanent 
settlement  there.  In  the  year  1007  A.  D.  he  sailed 
with  160  men,  having  live  stock  and  other  colonial 
equipments.  After  three  years  he  returned  to 
Greenland,  his  wife  having  given  birth  to  a  son 
during  their  first  year  in  Vinland.  From  this  son, 
Snorre,  it  is  claimed  by  some  Norwegian  his- 
torians, that  Thorwaldsen,  the  eminent  Danish 

*  Prof.  R.  B.  Anderson  says,  "  The  basin  of  the  Charles 
River  should  be  selected  as  the  most  probable  scene  of  the 
visits  of  Leif  Erikson,  etc  "  [v.  map.] 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  25 

sculptor  is  descended.  After  the  time  of  Thorfinn, 
the  settlement  in  Vinland  continued  to  flourish, 
having  a  good  export  trade  in  timber  with  Green- 
land. In  1 121  A.  D.  according  to  the  Icelandic 
saga,  the  bishop,  Erik  Upsi,  visited  Vinland,  that 
country  being,  like  Iceland  and  Greenland,  in- 
cluded in  his  bishopric.  The  last  voyage  to  Vin- 
land for  timber,  according  to  the  sagas,  was  in 

1347- 

Professor    Horsford,    of    Cambridge,    Mass., 

finds  the  site  of  Norumbega,  mentioned  in  various 
old  maps,  on  the  River  Charles,  near  Waltham, 
Mass.,  and  maintains  that  town  to  be  identical 
with  Vinland  of  the  Norsemen.  To  prove  his  be- 
lief in  this  theory,  the  professor  built  a  tower 
commemorating  the  Norse  discoveries.  He  ar- 
gued that  Norumbega  was  a  corruption  by  the 
Indians  of  the  word  Norvegr,  a  Norse  form  of 
"Norway." 

The  abandonment  of  Vinland  by  the  Norse  set- 
tlers may  be  compared  with  that  of  Gosnold's  ex- 
pedition to  the  same  region  near  the  end  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  reign.  Gosnold  was  sent  to  plant  an 
English  colony  in  America,  after  the  failure  of 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  settlement  at  Roanoke 
(North  Carolina)  ;  and  the  coast  explored  corre- 
sponded exactly  to  that  which  the  Norse  settlers 
had  named  Vinland,  lying  between  the  sites  of 
Boston  and  New  York.  He  gave  the  name  Cape 
Cod  to  that  promontory,  and  also  named  the 
islands  Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  the 
Elizabeth  group.  Selecting  one  of  these  for  set- 
tling a  colony,  he  built  on  it  a  storehouse  and  fort. 
The  scheme,  however,  failed,  owing  to  the  threats 
of  the  natives  and  the  scarcity  of  supplies,  and  all 


26    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

the  colonists  sailed  from  Massachusetts,  just  as 
the  Norse  settlers  had  done  many  generations  pre- 
viously. 

The  expedition  of  Gosnold  to  Vinland,  how- 
ever, bore  good  fruit,  from  the  favorable  report 
of  the  new  country  which  he  made  at  home.  The 
merchants  of  Bristol  fitted  out  two  ships  under 
Martin  Pring,  and  in  the  first  voyage  a  great  part 
of  Maine  (lying  north  of  Massachusetts)  was  ex- 
plored, and  the  coast  south  to  Martha's  Vineyard, 
where  Gosnold  had  been.  This  led  to  profitable 
traffic  with  the  natives,  and  three  years  later 
Pring  made  a  more  complete  survey  of  Maine. 

Vinland  was  also  the  scene  of  the  famous  land- 
ing of  the  Mayflower,  bringing  its  Puritans  from 
England.  It  was  in  Cape  Cod  Bay  that  she  was 
first  moored.  After  exploring  the  new  country, 
just  as  Leif  Erikson  had  done  so  many  genera- 
tions previously,  they  chose  a  place  on  the  west 
side  of  the  bay  and  named  the  little  settlement 
''Plymouth,"  after  the  last  English  port  from 
which  they  had  sailed.  Farther  north,  still  in 
Vinland,  they  soon  founded  two  other  towns, 
"Salem"  and  "Boston."  Those  three  settle- 
ments have  ever  since  been  important  centers  of 
energy  and  intelligence  in  Massachusetts,  as  well 
as  memorials  of  the  Norse  occupation  of  Vin- 
land. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  public  statue  being  erected 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  to  the  memory  of  Leif  Erik- 
son,  a  committee  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society  formally  decided  thus :  "It  is  antecedently 
probable  that  the  Northmen  discovered  America 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century." 

Prof.  Daniel  Wilson,  in  his  learned  work  Pre- 


PRE-COLUMBIAN   DISCOVERIES  27 

historic  Man  (ii,  83,  85),  thus  gives  his  opinion 
as  to  the  Norse  colony : 

With  all  reasonable  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of  details, 
there  is  the  strongest  probability  in  favor  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  American  Vinland. 

Of  the  Norse  colonies  in  Greenland  there  are 
some  undoubted  remains,  one  being  a  stone  in- 


The  Dighton  Stone  in  the  Taunton  River,  Massachusetts. 

scriptfon  in  runes,  proving  that  it  was  made  be- 
fore the  Reformation,  when  that  mode  of  writing 
was  forbidden  by  law.  The  stone  is  four  miles 
beyond  Upernavik.  The  inscription,  according  to 
Professor  Rask,  runs  thus : 

Erling  the  son  of  Sigvat,  and  Enride  Oddsoen, 
Had  cleared  the  place  and  raised  a  mound 
On  the  Friday  after  Rogation-day; 

— date  either  1135  or  1170. 


28    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

Rafn,  the  celebrated  Danish  archeologist,  states 
as  the  result  of  many  years'  research,  that  Amer- 
ica was  repeatedly  visited  by  the  Icelanders  in  the 
eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries ;  that 
the  estuary  of  the  St.  Lawrence  was  their  chief 
station  ;  that  they  had  coasted  southward  to  Caro- 
lina, everywhere  introducing  some  Christian  civ- 
ilization among  the  natives. 

A  supposed  rock  memorial  of  the  Norsemen 
is  the  Dighton  Stone  in  the  Taunton  River,  Mas- 


The  Dighton  Stone.     Fig.  2. 

sachusetts ;  one  of  its  sentences,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Rafn,  being: 

"Thorfinn  with  151  Norse  seafaring  men  took 
possession  of  this  land." 

The  figures  and  letters  (whether  runic  or 
merely  Indian)  inscribed  on  the  Dighton  Rock 
have  been  copied  by  antiquaries  at  the  following 
dates:  1680,  1712,  1730,  1768,  1788,  1807,  1812. 
The  above  illustration  (Fig.  2)  shows  the  last 
mentioned. 

There  have  been  many  probable  traces  of  ancient 
Norsemen  found  in  America,  besides  those  al- 
ready given.  At  Cape  Cod,  in  the  last  generation, 


PRE-COLUMBIAN   DISCOVERIES  29 

a  number  of  hearth-stones  were  found  under  a 
layer  of  peat.  A  more  famous  relic  was  the  skel- 
eton dug  up  in  Fall  River,  Mass.,  with  an  orna- 
mental belt  of  metal  tubes  made  from  fragments 
of  flat  brass ;  there  were  also  some  arrow-heads 
of  the  same  material.  Longfellow,  the  New  Eng- 
land poet,  naturally  had  his  attention  directed  to 
this  discovery  (made,  1831),  and  founded  on  it 
his  ballad  The  Skeleton  in  Armor,  connecting  it 
with  the  Round  Tower  at  Newport.  The  latter, 
according  to  Professor  Rafn,  "was  erected  decid- 
edly not  later  than  the  twelfth  century." 

I  was  a  Viking  old, 

My  deeds,  though  manifold, 

No  Skald  in  song  has  told 

No  Saga  taught  thee!  .  .  . 
Far  in  the  Northern  Land 
By  the  wild  Baltic's  strand 
I  with  my  childish  hand 

Tamed  the  ger-falcon. 
Oft  to  his  frozen  lair 
Tracked  I  the  grisly  bear, 
While  from  my  path  the  hare 

Fled  like  a  shadow. 


Scarce  had  I  put  to  sea 
Bearing  the  maid  \fcith  me—- 
Fairest of  all  was  she 

Among  the  Norsemen! 
Three  weeks  we  westward 
And  when  the  storm  was  o'er, 
Cloud-like  we  saw  the  shore 

Stretching  to  leeward; 
There  for  my  lady's  bower, 
Built  I  this  lofty  tower 
Which  to  this  very  hour 

Stands  looking  seaward ! 


30    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

Sir  Clements  Markham,  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  believes  that  the  Norse  settlers 
in  Greenland  were  driven  from  their  settlements 
there  by  Eskimos  coming,  not  from  the  interior  of 
America,  but  from  West  Siberia  along  the  polar 
regions,  by  Wrangell  Land  [v.  Journal,  R.  G.  S., 
1865,  and  Arctic  Geography,  1875], 

There  was  much  curiosity  from  the  sixteenth  to 
the  nineteenth  century  as  to  the  site  of  the  lost 
colonies  of  Greenland  which  had  so  long  flour- 
ished. In  1568  and  1579  the  King  of  Denmark 
sent  two  expeditions,  the  latter  in  charge  of  an 
Englishman,  but  no  traces  were  found.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  some  light 
was  thrown  upon  the  problem  by  a  missionary 
called  Egede,  who  first  described  the  ruins  and 
relics  observable  on  the  west  coast.  By  the  suc- 
cess of  his  preaching  among  the  Greenlanders  for 
fifteen  years,  assisted  by  other  gospel  mission- 
aries, the  Moravians  were  induced  to  found  their 
settlements  in  the  country,  principally  in  the 
southwest. 

It  seems  probable  that  in  early  times  the  climate 
of  Iceland  was  milder  than  it  now  is.  Columbus, 
some  fifteen  years  before  his  great  voyage  across 
the  Atlantic,  sailed  to  this  northern  "Thule,"  and 
reports  that  there  was  no  ice.  If  so,  it  is  surely 
possible  that  Greenland  also  may  have  been 
greener  and  more  attractive  than  during  the  re- 
cent centuries.  Why  should  it  not  at  one  time 
have  been  fully  deserving  of  the  name  by  which 
we  still  know  it  ?  Some  would  explain  the  change 
in  climatic  conditions  by  the  closing  in  of  ice- 
packs. At  present  Greenland  is  buried  deep 
under  a  vast,  solid  ice-cap  from  which  only  a  few 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  31 

of  the  highest  peaks  protrude  to  show  the  posi- 
tion of  the  submerged  mountains,  but  at  former 
periods,  according  to  geologists,  there  were  gar- 
dens and  farms  flourishing  under  a  genial  climate. 
Others  suppose  that,  were  the  ice  removed,  we 
should  see  an  archipelago  of  elevated  islands. 

2.  Celtic  Discovery  of  America. — We  have  al- 
ready glanced  at  the  fact  that  when  the  Norsemen 
first  seized  Iceland  they  found  that  island  inhab- 
ited by  Irish  Celts.  These  Christianized  Celts 
made  way  before  the  savage  invaders,  who  did  not 
accept  the  Catholic  religion  till  about  the  close  of 
the  tenth  century.  Sailing  south,  those  dispos- 
sessed Irish  probably  joined  their  brother  Celts 
who  had  already  long  held  a  district  on  the  east- 
ern coast  of  North  America,  which  some  Norse 
skippers  called  "White  Man's  Land,"  and  also 
Irland-it-Mikla  (i.  e.,  "Mickle  Ireland").  Pro- 
fessor Rafn  places  this  district. on  the  coast  of 
Carolina.  A  learned  memoir,  published  1851, 
attempts  to  prove  that  the  mysterious  "mound- 
builders"  of  the  Ohio  Valley  were  of  the  same 
race  as  the  settlers  on  Mickle  Ireland,  and  related 
to  the  "white-bearded  men"  who  established  an 
extinct  civilization  in  Mexico.  A  French  anti- 
quary, 1875,  identified  Mickle  Ireland  with  On- 
tario and  Quebec.  Beauvois,  in  his  Elysee  trans- 
atlantique,  derives  the  name  Labrador  from  the 
Innis  Labrada,  an  island  mentioned  in  an  ancient 
Irish  romance.*  Another  Irish  discoverer  was 
St.  Brandan,f  Abbot  of  Cluainfert,  Ireland  (died 

*  As  to  the  Irish  claim  for  the  pre-Columbian  discovery  of 
America,  see  also  Humboldt  (Cosmos,  ii,  607),  and  Laing 
(Heimsk.,  i,  186). 

t  MS.     Book  of  Lismore. 


32    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

May  16,  577),  who  was  told  that  far  in  the  ocean 
lay  an  island  which  was  the  land  promised  to  the 
saints.  St.  Brandan  set  sail  in  company  with 
seventy-five  monks,  and  spent  seven  years  upon 
the  ocean  in  two  voyages,  discovering  this  island 
and  many  others  equally  marvelous,  including  one 
which  turned  out  to  be  the  back  of  a  huge  fish, 
upon  which  they  celebrated  Easter.* 

Among  the  Celtic  claimants  for  discovery  we 
must  also  include  the  Welsh,  who  lay  stress  upon 
certain  resemblances  between  their  language  and 
the  dialects  of  the  native  Americans.  A  better  ar- 
gument is  the  historical  account  taken  from  their 
annals  about  the  expedition  of  Prince  Madoc,  son 
of  a  Welsh  chieftain,  who  sailed  due  west  in  the 
year  1170,  after  the  rumor  of  the  Norse  discov- 
eries had  reached  Britain.  He  landed  on  a  vast 
and  fertile  continent  where  he  settled  120  colo- 
nists. On  his  return  to  Wales  he  fitted  out  a  sec- 
ond fleet  of  ten  ships,  but  the  annals  give  no  re- 
port of  the  result.  Several  writers  state  that  the 
place  of  landing  was  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico: 
Hakluyt  connecting  the  discovery  with  Mexico 
(1589)  and  again  with  the  West  Indies  (edition 
of  1600).  In  the  seventeenth  century  some  au- 
thors wished  to  substantiate  the  story  of  Prince 
Madoc,  in  order  that  the  British  claim  to  America 
should  antedate  the  Spanish  claim  through  Co- 
lumbus. Prince  Madoc  is,  to  most  readers,  only 
known  by  Southey's  poem.f 

3.  Basque  Discovery  of  America. — Who  are 
the  Basque  people?  A  curious  race  of  Spanish 

*  The  story  is  given  by  Humboldt  and  D'Avezac. 
f  Some   quotations    from    Southey's    poem    are    given    in 
Chapters  V,  VI. 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  33 

mountaineers,  who  have  been  as  great  a  puzzle 
to  ethnologists  and  historians  as  their  language 
has  been  to 'philologists  and  scholars.  We  know, 
however,  that  in  former  times  they  were  nearly 
all  seamen,  making  long  voyages  to  the  north  for 
whale  and  Newfoundland  cod  fishing.  They 
have  produced  excellent  navigators ;  and  possibly 
preceded  Columbus  in  discovering  America.  Se- 
bastian, the  lieutenant  of  Magellan,  was  one  of 
the  Basque  race.  Magellan  did  not  live  to  com- 
plete his  famous  voyage,  therefore  Sebastian  was 
the  first  actual  circumnavigator  of  our  globe. 

Franqois  Michel,  in  his  work  Le  Pays  Basque, 
says  that  the  Basque  sailors  knew  the  coasts  of 
Newfoundland  a  century  before  the  time  of  Co- 
lumbus ;  and  that  it  was  from  one  of  these  ocean 
mariners  that  he  first  learned  the  existence  of  a 
continent  beyond  the  Atlantic.  Other  arguments 
are  derived  from  comparing  the  peculiarities  of 
the  Basque  tongue  with  those  of  the  American 
dialects.  Whitney,  an  American  scholar,  con- 
cludes that  "No  other  dialect  of  the  Old  World 
so  much  resembles  the  American  languages  in 
structure  as  the  Basque." 

4.  Jewish  Discovery  of  America. — There  is 
one  claim  for  the  discovery  of  America,  which, 
though  quite  improbable,  if  not  impossible,  has 
been  upheld  and  sanctioned  by  many  scholarly 
works  in  several  languages.  It  is  argued  that  the 
red  Indians  represent  the  ten  "Lost  Tribes"  of 
the  Hebrew  people  who  had  been  deported  to 
Assyria  and  Media  (v.  Extinct  Civilizations  of 
the  East,  p.  109).  The  theory  was  first  started 
by  some  Spanish  priest-missionaries,  and  has 
since  been  defended  by  many  learned  divines  both 


in  England  and  America,  one  leading  argument 
being  certain  similarities  in  the  languages.  Catlin 
(v.  Smithsonian  Report,  1885)  enumerates  many 
analogies  which  he  found  among  the  Western 
Indians.  The  most  authoritative  statement  is  that 
of  Lord  Kingsborough  in  the  well-known  Mex- 
ican Antiquities  (i83O-'48),  chiefly  in  Vol.  VII. 
Some  writers  actually  quote  a  statement  made  in 
the  Mormon  Bible!  Leading  New  England  di- 
vines, like  Mayhew  and  Cotton  Mather,  espoused 
the  cause  with  similar  faith,  as  well  as  Roger 
Williams  and  William  Penn. 

5.  The  Italian  Discovery  of  America. — Not 
through  Columbus  the  Genoese,  or  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci, the  Florentine,  although  they  were  cer- 
tainly Italians,  but  by  two  Venetians,  Nicolo  and 
Antonio  Zeno.  In  A.  D.  1380  or  1390  these  brothers 
Zeni  were  shipwrecked  in  the  North  Atlantic,  and, 
when  staying  in  Frislanda,  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  a  sailor  who,  after  twenty-six  years'  ab- 
sence, had  returned,  giving  them  the  following 
report : 

"Being  driven  west  in  a  gale,  he  found  an  island 
with  civilized  inhabitants,  who  had  Latin  books, 
but  could  not  speak  Norse,  and  whose  country  was 
called  Estotiland,  while  a  region  on  the  mainland, 
farther  south,  to  which  he  had  also  gone,  was 
called  Drogeo.  Here  he  had  met  with  cannibals. 
Still  farther  south  was  a  great  country  with  towns 
and  temples." 

The  two  brothers  Zeni  finally  conveyed  this  ac- 
count to  another  brother  in  Venice,  together  with 
a  map  of  those  distant  regions,  but  these  docu- 
ments remained  neglected  till  1558,  when  a  de- 
scendant compiled  a  book  to  embody  the  informa- 


PRE-COLUMBIAN  DISCOVERIES  35 

tion,  accompanied  by  a  map,  now  famous  as  "the 
Zeno  map." 

Humboldt,  with  reference  to  this  map,  remarks 
that  it  is  singular  that  the  name  Frislanda  should 
have  been  applied  by  Columbus  to  an  island  south 
of  Iceland.  Washington  Irving  (in  his  Life  of 
Columbus)  explains  the  book  by  a  desire  to  appeal 
to  the  national  pride  of  Italy,  since,  if  true,  the 
discovery  of  the  brothers  would  antedate  that  of 
Columbus  by  a  century. 

Malte-Brun,  the  distinguished  geographer,  dis- 
tinctly accepted  the  Zeni  narrative  as  true,  and 
believed  that  it  was  by  colonists  from  Greenland 
that  the  Latin  books  had  reached  Estotiland. 
Another  strong  advocate  afterward  appeared  in 
Mr.  Major,  an  official  in  the  map  department  of 
the  British  Museum,  who  believed  that  much  of 
the  map  in  question  represented  genuine  informa- 
tion of  the  fourteenth  century,  mixed  with  some 
spurious  parts  inserted  by  the  younger  Zeno.  Mr. 
Major's  paper  on  The  Site  of  the  Lost  Colony 
of  Greenland  Determined,  and  the  pre-Columbian 
Discoveries  of  America  Confirmed,  appeared  in 
R.  Geog.  Soc.  Journal,  1873 ;  v.  also  Proc.  Mass. 
Hist.  Soc.,  1874.  Nordenskjold  also  accepted  the 
chief  results  of  this  Italian  discovery,  and  as  an 
arctic  explorer  of  experience,  his  opinion  carries 
weight.  Mercator  and  Hugo  Grotius  were  also 
believers  in  the  Zeni  account. 


3<5    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

CHAPTER  II 
"DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND  OF  MAN" 

AT  the  beginning-  of  this  book  a  reference  was 
made  to  the  great  upheaval  in  European  history 
called  the  "Renascence"  (Fr.  renaissance)  or  Re- 
vival of  Learning.  In  1453  the  Turks  took  Con- 
stantinople, driving  the  Greek  scholars  to  take 
refuge  in  Italy,  which  at  once  became  the  most 
civilized  nation  in  Europe.  Poetry,  philosophy, 
and  art  thence  found  their  way  to  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Germany,  being  greatly  assisted  by  the 
invention  of  printing,  which  just  then  was  begin- 
ning to  make  books  cheaper  than  they  ever  had 
been.  At  the  same  time  feudalism  was  ruined,  be- 
cause the  invention  of  gunpowder  had  previously 
been  changing  the  art  of  war.  For  example,  the 
King  of  France,  Louis  XI,  as  well  as  the  King 
of  England,  Henry  VII,  had  entire  disposal  of 
the  national  artillery ;  and  therefore  overawed 
the  barons  and  armored  knights.  Neither  moated 
fortresses  nor  mail-clad  warriors,  nor  archers  with 
bows  and  arrows,  could  prevail  against  powder 
and  shot.  The  middle  ages  had  come  to  an  end»; 
modern  Europe  was  being  born.  France  had  be- 
come concentrated  by  the  union  of  the  south  to 
the  north  on  the  conclusion  of  the  "Hundred 
Years'  War,"  the  final  expulsion  of  the  English, 
and  the  abolition  of  all  the  great  feudatories  of 
the  kingdom.  England,  at  the  same  time,  had 
entirely  swept  away  the  rule  of  the  barons  by  the 
recent  "Wars  of  the  Roses,"  and  Henry  had 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD   AND   OF  MAN     37 

strengthened  his  position  by  alliance  with  France, 
Spain,  and  Scotland.  Spain,  by  the  expulsion  of 
the  Moors  from  Granada  in  A.  D.  1492,  was  for  the 
first  time  concentrated  into  one  great  state  by  the 
union  of  Isabella's  Kingdom  of  Castile-Leon  to 
Ferdinand's  Kingdom  of  Aragon-Sicily. 

From  the  importance  of  the  word  renaissance 
as  indicating  the  "movement  of  transition  from 
the  medieval  to  the  modern  world,"  Matthew 
Arnold  gave  it  the  English  form  "renascence" — 
adopted  by  J.  R.  Green,  Coleridge,  and  others.  In 
Germany,  this  great  revival  of  letters  and  learn- 
ing was  contemporaneous  with  the  Reformation, 
which  had  long  been  preparing  (e.  g.,  in  England 
since  John  Wyclif )  and  was  specially  assisted  by 
the  invention  of  printing,  which  we  have  just  men- 
tioned. The  minds  of  men  everywhere  were 
expanded:  "whatever  works  of  history,  science, 
morality,  or  entertainment  seemed  likely  to  in- 
struct or  amuse  were  printed  and  distributed 
among  the  people  at  large  by  printers  and  book- 
sellers." 

Thus  it  was  that,  though  the  Turks  never  had 
any  pretension  to  learning  or  culture,  yet  their 
action  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  in- 
directly caused  a  marvelous  tide  of  civilization  to 
overflow  all  the  western  countries  of  Europe. 
Another  result  in  the  same  age  was  the  increase 
of  navigation  and  exploration — the  discovery  of 
the  world  as  well  as  of  man.  When  the  Turks 
became  masters  of  the  eastern  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  the  European  merchants  were 
prevented  from  going  to  India  and  the  East  by 
the  overland  route,  as  had  been  done  for  genera- 
tions. Thus,  since  geography  was  at  this  very 


38    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

time  improved  by  the  science  of  Copernicus  and 
others,  the  natural  inquiry  was  how  to  reach  India 
by  sea  instead  of  going  overland.  Columbus, 
therefore,  sailed  due  west  to  reach  Asia,  and 
stumbled  upon  a  "New  World"  without  knowing 
what  he  did ;  then  Cabot,  sailing  from  Bristol, 
sailed  northwest  to  reach  India,  and  stumbled 
upon  the  continent  of  America;  and  during  the 
same  reign  (Henry  VII)  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
both  North  and  South  America  was  visited  by 
English,  Portuguese,  or  Spanish  navigators.  The 
third  expedition  to  reach  India  by  sea  was  under 
De  Gama.  He  set  out  in  the  same  year  as  Cabot, 
sailing  into  the  South  Atlantic,  and  ultimately  did 
find  the  west  coast  of  India  at  Calicut,  after 
rounding  the  cape. 

The  mere  enumeration  of  so  many  events,  all 
of  first-rate  importance,  proves  that  that  half  cen- 
tury (say  from  A.  D.  1460  to  1520)  must  be  called 
"an  age  of  marvels,"  sceclum  mirabilc.  The  con- 
currence of  so  many  epoch-making  results  gave  a 
great  impulse,  not  only  to  the  study  of  literature, 
science,  and  art,  but  to  the  exploration  of  many 
unknown  countries  in  America,  Africa,  and  Asia, 
and  the  universal  expansion  of  human  knowledge 
generally. 

I. — We  shall  now  consider  the  first  of  these  dis- 
coverers, who  was  also  the  greatest. 

COLUMBUS,  the  Latinized  form  of  the  Italian 
Colombo,  Spanish,  Colon.  This  Genoese  navi- 
gator must  throughout  all  history  be  called  the 
discoverer  of  America,  notwithstanding  all  the 
work  of  smaller  men.  From  his  study  of  geo- 
graphical books  in  several  languages,  Columbus 
had  convinced  himself  that  our  planet  is  spherical 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND   OF  MAN     39 

or  ball-shaped,  not  a  flat,  plane  surface.  Till  then 
India  had  always  been  reached  by  traveling  over- 
land toward  the  rising  sun.  Why  not  sail  west- 
ward from  Europe  over  the  ocean,  and  thus  come 
to  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia  by  traveling  toward 
the  setting  sun  ?  By  doing  so,  since  our  world  is 
ball-shaped,  said  Columbus,  we  must  inevitably 
reach  Zipango  (i.  e.,  "Japan")  and  Cathay  (i.  e., 
"China"),  which  are  the  most  eastern  parts  of 
Asia.  India  then  will  be  a  mere  detail.  Judging 
from  the  accounts  of  Asia  and  its  eastern  islands 
given  by  Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian,  as  well  as  from 
the  maps  sketched  by  Ptolemy,  the  Egyptian 
geographer,  Columbus  believed  that  the  east  coast 
of  Asia  was  not  so  very  far  from  the  west  coast 
of  Europe.  Columbus  was  confirmed  in  this  opin- 
ion by  a  learned  geographer  of  Florence,  named 
Paul,  and  henceforward  impatiently  waited  for  an 
opportunity  of  testing  the  truth  of  his  theory. 

He  convinced  himself,  but  could  not  convince 
any  one  else,  that  a  westerly  route  to  India  was 
quite  feasible.  First  he  laid  his  plans  before  the 
authorities  at  Genoa,  who  had  for  generations 
traded  with  Asia  by  the  overland  journey,  and 
ought  therefore  to  have  been  glad  to  learn  of  this 
new  alternative  route,  since  the  Turks  were  now 
playing  havoc  with  the  other;  but  no,  they  told 
Columbus  that  his  idea  was  chimerical !  Next  he 
applied  to  the  court  of  France.  "Ridiculous !"  was 
the  reply,  accompanied  with  a  polite  sneer.  Next 
Columbus  sent  his  scheme  to  Henry  VII  of  Eng- 
land, a  prince  full  of  projects,  but  miserly.  "Too 
expensive !"  was  the  Tudor's  reply,  though  pres- 
ently, after  the  Spanish  success,  he  became  eager 
to  despatch  expeditions  from  Bristol  under  the 


40    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

Cabots.  Then  Columbus,  by  the  advice  of  his 
brother,  who  had  settled  in  Lisbon  as  a  map- 
maker,  approached  King  John,  seeking  patronage 
and  assistance,  pleading  the  foremost  position  of 
Portugal  among  the  maritime  states.  The  Portu- 
guese neglected  the  golden  opportunity,  ocean 
navigation  not  being  in  their  way  as  yet ;  their 
skippers  preferred  "to  hug  the  African  shore." 

At  last  Columbus  gained  the  ear  of  Isabella, 
Queen  of  Castile;  she  believed  in  him  and  tried 
to  get  the  assistance  of  her  husband,  Ferdinand, 
King  of  Aragon,  in  providing  an  outfit  for  the 
great  expedition.  Owing  to  Ferdinand's  war  in 
expelling  the  Moors  from  Granada,  Columbus 
had  still  to  wait  several  years. 

In  a  previous  year,  1477,  Columbus  had  sailed 
to  the  North  Atlantic,  perhaps  in  one  of  those 
Basque  whalers  already  referred  to,  going  "a 
hundred  leagues  beyond  Thule."  If  that  means 
Iceland,  as  is  generally  supposed,  it  seems  most 
probable  that,  when  conversing  with  the  sailors 
there  he  must  have  heard  how  Leif,  with  his 
Norsemen,  had  discovered  the  American  coasts 
of  Newfoundland  and  Vinland  some  five  cen- 
turies earlier,  and  how  they  had  settled  a  colony 
on  the  new  continent.  Other  writers  have  pointed 
out  that  Columbus  could  very  well  have  heard  of 
Vinland  and  the  Northmen  before  leaving  Genoa, 
since  one  of  the  Popes  had  sanctioned  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  bishop  over  the  new  diocese.  If  so, 
the  visit  of  Columbus  to  Iceland  probably  gave 
him  confirmation  as  to  the  Norse  discovery  of  the 
American  continent. 

When  at  last  King  Ferdinand  had  taken  Gra- 
nada from  the  Moors,  Columbus  was  put  in  com- 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND   OF  MAN     41 

mand  of  three  ships,  with  120  men.  He  set  sail 
from  the  port  of  Palos,  in  Andalusia,  on  a  Fri- 
day, August  3,  1492,  first  steering  to  the  Canary 
Islands,  and  then  standing  due  west.  In  Septem- 
ber, to  the  amazement  of  all  on  board,  the  com- 
pass was  seen  to  "vary" :  an  important  scientific 
discovery — viz.,  that  the  magnetic  needle  does  not 
always  point  to  the  pole-star.  Some  writers  have 
imagined  that  the  compass  was  for  the  first  time 
utilized  for  a  long  journey  by  Columbus,  but  the 
occult  power  of  the  magnetic  needle  or  '"lode- 
stone"  had  been  known  for  ages  before  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  ancient  Persians  and  other 
"wise  men  of  the  East"  used  the  lodestone  as  a 
talisman.  Both  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian 
races  used  it  as  an  infallible  guide  in  traveling 
across  the  mighty  plains  of  Asia.  The  Cynosure 
in  the  Great  Bear  was  the  "guiding  star,"  whether 
by  sea  or  land;  but  when  the  heavens  were 
wrapped  in  clouds,  the  magic  stone  or  needle 
served  to  point  exactly  the  position  of  the  unseen 
star.  What  Columbus  and  his  terrified  crews  dis- 
covered was  the  "variation  of  the  compass,"  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  magnetic  needle  points,  not  to 
the  North  Star,  but  to  the  "magnetic  pole,"  a 
point  in  Canada  to  the  west  of  Baffin's  Bay  and 
north  of  Hudson  Bay. 

If  Columbus  had  continued  steering  due  west 
he  would  have  landed  on  the  continent  of  America 
in  Florida;  but  before  sighting  that  coast  the 
course  was  changed  to  southwest,  because  some 
birds  were  seen  flying  in  that  direction.  The  first 
land  reached  was  an  island  of  the  Bahama  group, 
which  he  named  San  Salvador.  As  the  Spanish 
boats  rowed  to  shore  they  were  welcomed  by 


42     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

crowds  of  astonished  natives,  mostly  naked,  un- 
less for  a  girdle  of  wrought  cotton  or  plaited 
feathers.  Hence  the  lines  of  Milton: 

Such  of  late 

Columbus  found  the  American,  so  girt 
With  feathered  cincture,  naked  else  and  wild, 
Among  the  trees  on  isles  and  woody  shores. 

The  spot  of  landing  was  formerly  identified  by 
Washington  Irving  and  Baron  Humboldt  with 
"Cat  Island" ;  but  from  the  latest  investigation  it 
is  now  believed  to  have  been  Watling's  Island. 
Here  he  landed  on  a  Friday,  October  12,  1492. 

So  little  was  then  known  of  the  geography  of 
the  Atlantic  or  of  true  longitude,  that  Columbus 
attributed  these  islands  to  the  east  coast  of  Asia. 
He  therefore  named  them  "Indian  Islands,"  as  if 
close  to  Hindustan,  a  blunder  that  has  now  been 
perpetuated  for  four  hundred  and  ten  years.  The 
natives  were  called  "Indians"  for  the  same  rea- 
sons. As  the  knowledge  of  geography  advanced 
it  became  necessary  to  say  "West  Indies"  or 
"East  Indies"  respectively,  to  distinguish  Amer- 
ican from  Asiatic — "Indian  corn"  means  Ameri- 
can, but  "Indian  ink"  means  Asiatic,  etc.  Even 
after  his  fourth  and  last  voyage  Columbus  be- 
lieved that  the  continent,  as  well  as  the  islands, 
was  a  portion  of  eastern  Asia,  and  he  died  in  that 
belief,  without  any  suspicion  of  having  discov- 
ered a  New  World. 

A  curious  confirmation  of  the  opinion  of  Co- 
lumbus has  just  been  discovered  (1894)  in  the 
Florence  Library,  by  Dr.  Wieser,  of  Innsbruck. 
It  is  the  actual  copy  of  a  map  by  the  Great  Ad- 
miral, drawn  roughly  in  a  letter  written  from 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD   AND   OF  MAN     43 

Jamaica,  July,  1503.  It  shows  that  his  belief  as 
to  the  part  of  the  world  reached  in  his  voyages 
was  that  it  was  the  east  coast  of  Asia. 

The  chief  discovery  made  by  Columbus  in  his 
first  voyage  was  the  great  island  of  Cuba,  which 
he  imagined  to  be  part  of  a  continent.  Some  of 
the  Spaniards  went  inland  for  sixty  miles  and 
reported  that  they  had  reached  a  village  of  more 
than  a  thousand  inhabitants,  and  that  the  corn 
used  for  food  was  called  maize — probably  the 
first  instance  of  Europeans  using  a  term  which 
was  afterward  to  become  as  familiar  as  "wheat" 
or  "barley."  The  natives  told  Columbus  that 
their  gold  ornaments  came  from  Cubakan,  mean- 
ing the  interior  of  Cuba ;  but  he,  on  hearing  the 
syllable  kan,  immediately  thought  of  the  "Khan" 
mentioned  by  Marco  Polo,  and  therefore  imag- 
ined that  "Cathay"  (the  China  of  that  famous 
traveler)  was  close  at  hand.  The  simple-minded 
Cubans  were  amazed  that  the  Spaniards  had  such 
a  love  for  gold,  and  pointed  eastward  to  another 
island,  which  they  called  Hayti,  saying  it  was 
more  plentiful  there  than  in  Cuba.  Thus  Colum- 
bus discovered  the  second  in  size  of  all  the  West 
Indian  islands,  Cuba  being  the  first ;  he,  after 
landing  on  it,  called  it  "Hispaniola,"  or  Little 
Spain.  Hayti  in  a  few  years  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Spanish  establishments  in  the 
New  World,  after  its  capital,  San  Domingo,  had 
been  built  by  Bartholomew  Columbus.  It  was  in 
this  island  that  the  Spaniards  saw  the  first  of  the 
"caziques,"  or  native  princes,  afterward  so  famil- 
iar during  the  conquest  of  Mexico ;  he  was  car- 
ried on  the  shoulders  of  four  men,  and  cour- 
teously presented  Columbus  with  some  plates  of 


44    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

gold.     In  a  letter  to  the  monarchs  of  Spain  the 
admiral  thus  refers  to  the  natives  of  Hayti : 

The  people  are  so  affectionate,  so  tractable,  and  so 
peaceable  that  I  swear  to  your  Highnesses  there  is  not  a 
better  race  of  men,  nor  a  better  country  in  the  world  ;  .  .  . 
their  conversation  is  the  sweetest  and  mildest  in  the  world, 
and  always  accompanied  with  a  smile.  The  king  is  served 
with  great  state,  and  his  behavior  is  so  decent  that  it  is 
pleasant  to  see  him. 

The  admiral  had  previously  described  the  In- 
dians of  Cuba  as  equally  simple  and  friendly,  tell- 
ing how  they  had  "honored  the  strangers  as 
sacred  beings  allied  to  heaven."  The  pity  of  it, 
and  the  shame,  is  that  those  frank,  unsuspicious, 
islanders  had  no  notion  or  foresight  of  the  cruel 
desolation  which  their  gallant  guests  were  pres- 
ently to  bring  upon  the  native  races — death,  and 
torture,  and  extermination ! 

A  harbor  in  Cuba  is  thus  described  by  Colum- 
bus in  a  letter  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella : 

I  discovered  a  river  which  a  galley  might  easily  enter. 
...  I  found  from  five  to  eight  fathoms  of  water.  Having 
proceeded  a  considerable  way  up  the  river,  everything  in- 
vited me  to  settle  there.  The  beauty  of  the  river,  the  clear- 
ness of  the  water,  the  multitude  of  palm-trees  and  an  in- 
finite number  of  other  large  and  flourishing  trees,  the  birds 
and  the  verdure  of  the  plains,  ...  I  am  so  much  amazed 
at  the  sight  of  such  beauty,  that  I  know  not  how  to  de- 
scribe it. 

Having  lost  his  flag-ship,  Columbus  returned  to 
Spain  with  the  two  small  caravels  that  remained 
from  his  petty  fleet  of  three,  arriving  in  the  port 
of  Palos  March  15,  1493.  The  reception  of  the 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND   OF  MAN    45 

successful  explorer  was  a  national  event.  He  en- 
tered Barcelona  to  be  presented  at  court  with 
every  circumstance  of  honor  and  triumph.  Sit- 
ting in  presence  of  the  king  and  queen  he  re- 
lated his  wondrous  tale,  while  his  attendants 
showed  the  gold,  the  cotton,  the  parrots  and  other 
unknown  birds,  the  curious  arms  and  plants,  and 
above  all  the  nine  "Indians"  with  their  outlandish 
trappings — brought  to  be  made  Christians  by  bap- 
tism. Ferdinand  and  Isabella  heaped  honors 
upon  the  successful  navigator;  and  in  return  he 
promised  them  the  untold  riches  of  Zipango  and 
Cathay.  A  new  fleet,  larger  and  better  equipped, 
was  soon  found  for  a  second  voyage. 

With  his  new  ships,  in  1498,  Columbus  again 
stood  due  west  from  the  Canaries ;  and  at  last 
discovering  an  island  with  three  mountain  sum- 
mits he  named  it  Trinidad  (i.  e.,  "Trinity") 
without  knowing  that  he  was  then  coasting  the 
great  continent  of  South  America.  A  few  days 
later  he  and  the  crew  were  amazed  by  a  tumult 
of  waves  caused  by  the  fresh  water  of  a  great 
river  meeting  the  sea.  It  was  the  "Oronooko," 
afterward  called  Orinoco ;  and  from  its  volume 
Columbus  and  his  shipmates  concluded  that  it 
must  drain  part  of  a  continent  or  a  very  large 
island. 

Where  Orinoco  in  his  pride, 
Rolls  to  the  main  no  tribute  tide, 
But  'gainst  broad  ocean  urges  far 
A  rival  sea  of  roaring  war ; 
While  in  ten  thousand  eddies  driven 
The  billows  fling  their  foam  to  heaven, 
And  the  pale  pilot  seeks  in  vain, 
Where  rolls  the  river,  where  the  main. 


46    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

That  was  the  first  glimpse  which  they  had  of 
America  proper,  still  imagining  it  was  only  a  part 
of  eastern  Asia.  In  the  following  voyage,  his 
last,  Columbus  coasted  part  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien.  It  was  not,  however,  explored  till  the 
visit  of  Balboa. 

It  was  during  his  third  voyage  that  the  "Great 
Admiral"  suffered  the  indignity  at  San  Domingo 
of  being  thrown  into  chains  and  sent  back  to 
Spain.  This  was  done  by  Bobadilla,  an  officer 
of  the  royal  household,  who  had  been  sent  out 


S- 


Cipher  autograph  of  Columbus. 

The  interpretation  of  the  cipher  is  probably: 

SERVATF  Christ"*  Maria  Yoseph"*  (Christoferens). 

with  full  power  to  put  down  misrule.  The  mon- 
archs  of  Spain  set  Columbus  free  ;  and  soon  after- 
ward he  was  provided  with  four  ships  for  his 
fourth  voyage.  Stormy  weather  wrecked  this 
final  expedition,  and  at  last  he  was  glad  to  arrive 
in  Spain,  November  7,  1504.  He  now  felt  that 
his  work  on  earth  was  done,  and  died  at  Valla- 
dolid,  May  20,  1506.  After  temporary  interment 
there  his  body  was  transferred  to  the  cathedral 
of  San  Domingo  —  whence,  1796,  some  remains 
were  removed  with  imposing  ceremonies  to  Ha- 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND   OF  MAN     47 

vana.  From  later  investigations  it  appears  that 
the  ashes  of  the  Genoese  discoverer  are  still  in  the 
tomb  of  San  Domingo. 

It  was  in  the  cathedral  of  Seville,  over  his  first 
tomb,  that  King  Ferdinand  is  said  to  have  hon- 
ored the  memory  of  the  Great  Admiral  with  a 
marble  monument  bearing  the  well-known  epi- 
taph: 


A   CASTILLA   Y  ARAGON 
NUEVO  MUNDO  DIG  COLON. 


or,   'To  the  united  Kingdom  of   Castile- Aragon 
Columbus  gave  a  New  World." 

After  the  death  of  Columbus,  it  seemed  as  if 
fate  intended  his  family  to  enjoy  the  honors  and 
rewards  of  which  he  had  been  so  unjustly  de- 
prived. His  son,  Diego,  wasted  two  years  trying 
to  obtain  from  King  Ferdinand  the  offices  of  vice- 
roy and  admiral,  which  he  had  a  right  to  claim  in 
accordance  with  the  arrangement  formerly  made 
with  his  father.  At  last  Diego  began  a  suit 
against  Ferdinand  before  the  council  which  man- 
aged Indian  affairs.  That  court  decided  in  favor 
of  Diego's  claim ;  and  as  he  soon  greatly  improved 
his  social  position  by  marrying  the  niece  of  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  a  high  nobleman,  Diego  received 
the  appointment  of  governor  (not  viceroy),  and 
went  to  Hayti,  attended  by  his  brother  and  uncles, 
as  well  as  his  wife  and  a  large  retinue.  There 
Diego  Columbus  and  his  family  lived,  "with  a 
splendor  hitherto  unknown  in  the  New  World." 


45    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

II. — Henry  VII  of  England,  after  repenting 
that  he  had  not  secured  the  services  of  Columbus, 
commissioned  John  Cabot  to  sail  from  Bristol 
across  the  Atlantic  in  a  northwesterly  direction, 
with  the  hope  of  finding  some  passage  there- 
abouts to  India.  In  June,  1497,  a  new  coast  was 
sighted  (probably  Labrador  or  Newfoundland), 
and  named  Prima  Vista.  They  coasted  the  con- 
tinent southward,  "ever  with  intent  to  find  the 
passage  to  India,"  till  they  reached  the  peninsula 
now  called  Florida.  On  this  important  voyage 
was  based  the  claim  which  the  English  kings 
afterward  made  for  the  possession  of  all  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  North  America.  King  Henry 
wished  colonists  to  settle  in  the  new  land,  tarn  viri 
quam  femince,  but  since,  in  his  usual  miserly  char- 
acter, he  refused  to  give  a  single  "testoon,"  or 
"groat"  toward  the  enterprise,  no  colonies  were 
formed  till  the  days  of  Walter  Raleigh,  more  than 
a  century  later. 

Sebastian  Cabot,  born  in  Bristol,  1477,  was 
more  renowned  as  a  navigator  than  his  father, 
John,  and  almost  ranks  with  Columbus.  After 
discovering  Labrador  or  Newfoundland  with  his 
father,  he  sailed  a  second  time  with  300  men  to 
form  colonies,  passing  apparently  into  Hudson 
Bay.  He  wished  to  discover  a  channel  leading 
to  Hindustan,  but  the  difficulties  of  icebergs  and 
cold  weather  so  frightened  his  crews  that  he  was 
compelled  to  retrace  his  course.  In  another  at- 
tempt at  the  northwest  passage  to  Asia,  he 
reached  latitude  67^°  north,  and  "gave  English 
names  to  sundry  places  in  Hudson  Bay."  In 
1526,  when  commanding  a  Spanish  expedition 
from  Seville,  he  sailed  to  Brazil,  which  had  al- 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND   OF  MAN    49 

ready  been  annexed  to  Portugal  by  Cabrera,  ex- 
plored the  River  La  Plata  and  ascended  part  of 
the  Paraguay,  returning  to  Spain  in  1531.  After 
his  return  to  England,  King  Edward  VI  had 
some  interviews  with  Cabot,  one  topic  being  the 
"variation  of  the  compass."  He  received  a  royal 
pension  of  250  marks,  and  did  special  work  in  re- 
lation to  trade  and  navigation.  The  great  honor 
of  Cabot  is  that  he  saw  the  American  continent 
before  Columbus  or  Amerigo  Vespucci. 

III. — Of  the  great  navigators  of  that  unexam- 
pled age  of  discovery,  as  Spain  was  honored  by 
Columbus  and  England  by  Cabot,  so  Portugal 
was  honored  by  De  Gama.  Vasco  de  Gama,  the 
greatest  of  Portuguese  navigators,  left  Lisbon  in 
1497  to  explore  the  unknown  world  lying  east  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  arriving  at  Calicut,  May, 
1498.  Before  that,  Diaz  had  actually  rounded  the 
cape,  but  seems  to  have  done  so  merely  before  a 
high  gale.  He  named  it  "the  stormy  Cape."  Ca- 
brera, or  Cabral,  was  another  great  explorer  sent 
from  Portugal  to  follow  in  the  route  of  De  Gama ; 
but  being  forced  into  a  southwesterly  route  by 
currents  in  the  south  Atlantic,  he  landed  on  the 
continent  of  America,  and  annexed  the  new  coun- 
try to  Portugal  under  the  name  of  Brazil.  Ca- 
brera afterward  drew  up  the  first  commercial 
treaty  between  Portugal  and  India. 

IV. — Magellan,  scarcely  inferior  to  Columbus, 
brought  honor  as  a  navigator  both  to  Portugal 
and  Spain.  For  the  latter  country,  when  in  the 
service  of  Charles  V,  he  revived  the  idea  of  Co- 
lumbus that  we  may  sail  to  Asia  or  the  Spice 
Islands  by  sailing  west.  With  a  squadron  of  five 
ships,  236  men,  he  sailed,  in  1519,  to  Brazil  and 
4 


50    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

convinced  himself  that  the  great  estuary  was  not 
a  strait.  Sailing  south  along  the  American  coast, 
he  discovered  the  strait  that  bears  his  name,  and 
through  it  entered  the  Pacific,  then  first  sailed 
upon  by  Europeans,  though  already  seen  by  Bal- 
boa and  his  men  "upon  a  peak  in  Darien" — as 
Keats  puts  it  in  his  famous  sonnet.*  From  the 
continuous  fine  weather  enjoyed  for  some  months, 
Magellan  naturally  named  the  new  sea  "the  Pa- 
cific." After  touching  at  the  Ladrones  and  the 
Philippines,  Magellan  was  killed  in  a  fight  with 
the  inhabitants  of  Matan,  a  small  island.  Sebas- 
tian, his  Basque  lieutenant  (mentioned  in  Chap- 
ter I)  then  successfully  completed  the  circum- 
navigation of  the  world,  sailing  first  to  the 
Moluccas  and  thence  to  Spain. 

V. — Of  all  the  world-famous  navigators  con- 
temporary with  Colon,  the  Genoese,  there  re- 
mains only  one  deserving  of  our  notice,  and  that 
because  his  name  is  for  all  time  perpetuated  in 
that  of  the  New  World.  Amerigo  (Latin  Ameri- 
ciis)  Vespucci,  born  at  Florence,  1451,  had  com- 
mercial occupation  in  Cadiz,  and  was  employed 
by  the  Spanish  Government.  He  has  been  charged 
with  a  fraudulent  attempt  to  usurp  the  honor  due 
to  Columbus,  but  Humboldt  and  others  have  de- 
fended him,  after  a  minute  examination  of  the  evi- 
dence. In  a  book  published  in  1507  by  a  German, 
W aldseemuller ,  the  author  happens  to  say: 

And  the  fourth  part  of  the  world  having  been  discovered 
by  Americus,  it  may  be  called  Amerige,  that  is  the  land  of 
Americus,  or  America. 

*  The  poet,  however,  makes  the  clerical  blunder  of  writing 
Cortez  for  Balboa. 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  WORLD  AND   OF  MAN     51 

Vespucci  never  called  himself  the  discoverer 
of  the  new  continent;  as  a  mere  subordinate  he 
could  not  think  of  such  a  thing.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  he  and  Columbus  were  always  on  friendly 
terms,  attached,  and  trusted.  Humboldt  explains 
the  blunder  of  Waldseemuller  and  others  by  the 
general  ignorance  of  the  history  of  how  America 
was  discovered,  since  for  some  years  it  was  jeal- 
ously guarded  as  a  ''state  secret."  Humboldt 
curiously  adds  that  the  "musical  sound  of  the 
name  caught  the  public  ear,"  and  thus  the  blunder 
has  been  universally  perpetuated : 

statque  stalitque 

in  omne  volubilis  (zvum. 

Another  reason  for  the  universal  renown  of 
Amerigo  was  that  his  book  was  the  first  that  told 
of  the  new  "Western  World" ;  and  was  therefore 
eagerly  read  in  all  parts  of  Europe. 

Cuba,  though  the  largest  of  the  West  Indian 
islands,  and  second  to  be  discovered,  was  not 
colonized  till  after  the  death  of  Columbus.  Thus 
for  more  than  three  centuries  and  a  half,  as 
"Queen  of  the  Antilles"  and  "Pearl  of  the  An- 
tilles," Cuba  has  been  noted  as  a  chief  colonial 
possession  of  Spain,  till  recent  events  brought  it 
under  the  power  of  the  United  States.  The  con- 
quest of  the  island  was  undertaken  by  Velasquez, 
who,  after  accompanying  the  great  admiral  in  his 
second  voyage,  had  settled  in  Hispaniola  (or 
Hayti)  and  acquired  a  large  fortune  there.  He 
had  little  difficulty  in  the  annexation  of  Cuba,  be- 
cause the  natives,  like  those  of  Hispaniola,  were 
of  a  peaceful  character,  easily  imposed  upon  by 
the  invaders.  The  only  difficulty  Velasquez  had 


52     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

was  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  where 
Hatuey,  a  cazique  or  native  chief,  who  had  fled 
there  from  Hispaniola,  made  preparations  to  re- 
sist the  Spaniards.  When  defeated,  he  was 
cruelly  condemned  by  Velasquez  to  be  burned  to 
death,  as  a  "slave  who  had  taken  arms  against 
his  master."  The  scene  at  Hatuey 's  execution  is 
well  known : 

When  fastened  to  the  stake,  a  Franciscan  friar  promised 
him  immediate  admittance  into  the  joys  of  heaven,  if  he 
would  embrace  the  Christian  faith.  "Are  there  any  Span- 
iards," says  he,  after  some  pause,  "in  that  region  of  bliss 
which  you  describe?"  "Yes,"  replied  the  monk,  "but 
only  such  as  are  worthy  and  good."  "The  best  of  them 
have  neither  worth  nor  goodness  :  I  will  not  go  to  a  place 
where  I  may  meet  with  one  of  that  accursed  race." 

Being  thus  annexed  in  1511,  by  the  middle  of 
the  century  all  the  native  Indians  of  Cuba  had 
become  extinct.  In  the  following  century  this 
large  and  fertile  island  suffered  severely  by  the 
buccaneers,  but  during  the  eighteenth  century  it 
prospered.  During  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
United  States  Government  had  often  been  urged 
to  obtain  possession  of  it ;  for  example,  the  sum 
of  one  hundred  million  dollars  was  offered  in  1848 
by  President  Polk.  Slavery  was  at  last  abolished 
absolutely  in  1886.  In  recent  years  Spain,  by 
ceding  Cuba  and  the  Philippines  to  the  United 
States  and  the  Carolines  to  Germany,  has  brought 
her  colonial  history  to  a  close. 

Two  other  important  events  occurred  when 
Velasquez  was  Governor  of  Cuba:  first,  the  es- 
cape of  Balboa  from  Hispaniola,  to  become  after- 
ward Governor  of  Darien ;  and,  second,  the  expe- 


DISCOVERY   OF  THE  WORLD   AND   OF  MAN     53 

dition  under  Cordova  to  explore  that  part  of  the 
continent  of  America  which  lies  nearest  to  Cuba. 
This  expedition  of  1 10  men,  in  three  small  ships, 
led  to  the  discovery  of  that  large  peninsula  now 
known  as  Yucatan.  Cordova  imagined  it  to  be 
an  island.  The  natives  were  not  naked,  like  those 
of  the  West  Indian  islands,  but  wore  cotton 
clothes,  and  some  had  ornaments  of  gold.  In  the 
towns,  which  contained  large  stone  houses,  and 
country  generally,  there  were  many  proofs  of  a 
somewhat  advanced  civilization.  The  natives, 
however,  were  much  more  warlike  than  the  sim- 
ple islanders  of  Cuba  and  Hispaniola;  and  Cor- 
dova, in  fact,  was  glad  to  return  from  Yucatan. 

Velasquez,  on  hearing  the  report  of  Cordova, 
at  once  fitted  out  four  vessels  to  explore  the  newly 
discovered  country,  and  despatched  them  under 
command  of  his  nephew,  Grijalva.  Everywhere 
were  found  proofs  of  civilization,  especially  in 
architecture.  The  whole  district,  in  fact,  abounds 
in  prehistoric  remains.  From  a  friendly  chief 
Grijalva  received  a  sort  of  coat  of  mail  covered 
with  gold  plates ;  and  on  meeting  the  ruler  of  the 
province  he  exchanged  some  toys  and  trinkets, 
such  as  glass  beads,  pins,  scissors,  for  a  rich  treas- 
ure of  jewels,  gold  ornaments  and  vessels. 

Grijalva  was  therefore  the  first  European  to 
step  on  the  Aztec  soil  and  open  an  intercourse 
with  the  natives.  Velasquez,  the  Governor,  at 
once  prepared  a  larger  expedition,  choosing  as 
leader  or  commander  an  officer  who  was  destined 
henceforth  to  fill  a  much  larger  place  in  history 
than  himself,  one  who  presently  appeared  capable 
of  becoming  a  general  in  the  foremost  rank,  Her- 
nando  Cortes,  greatest  of  all  Spanish  explorers. 


54    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS 

IN  the  Extinct  Civilizations  of  the  East  it  was 
shown  that  the  cosmogony  of  the  Chaldeans 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Hebrews  and  the 
Phenicians,  and  that  the  account  of  the  deluge  in 
Genesis  exactly  reproduces  the  much  earlier  one 
found  on  one  of  the  Babylonian  tablets. 

Traces  of  a  deluge  legend  also  existed  among 
the  early  Aztecs.  They  believed 

that  two  persons  survived  the  Deluge,  a  man  named  Koksoz 
and  his  wife.  Their  heads  are  represented  in  ancient  paint- 
ings together  with  a  boat  floating  on  the  waters  at  the  foot 
of  a  mountain.  A  dove  is  also  depicted,  with  a  hieroglyph- 
ical  emblem  of  languages  in  his  mouth.  .  .  .  Tezpi,  the 
Noah  of  a  neighboring  people,  also  escaped  in  a  boat, 
which  was  filled  with  various  kinds  of  animals  and  birds. 
After  some  time  a  vulture  was  sent  out  from  it,  but  re- 
mained feeding  on  the  dead  bodies  of  the  giants,  which  had 
been  left  on  the  earth  as  the  waters  subsided.  The  little 
humming-bird  was  then  sent  forth  and  returned  with  the 
branch  of  a  tree  in  its  mouth. 

Another  Aztec  tradition  of  the  deluge  is  that 
the  pyramidal  mound,  the  temple  of  Cholula  (a 
sacred  city  on  the  way  between  the  capital  and 
the  seaport),  was  built  by  the  giants  to  escape 
drowning.  Like  the  tower  of  Babel,  it  was  in- 
tended to  reach  the  clouds,  till  the  gods  looked 
down  and,  by  destroying  the  pyramid  by  fires 
from  heaven,  compelled  the  builders  to  abandon 
the  attempt. 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  55 

The  hieroglyphics  used  in  the  Aztec  calendar 
correspond  curiously  with  the  zodiacal  signs  of 
the  Mongols  of  eastern  Asia.  ''The  symbols  in 
the  Mongolian  calendar  are  borrowed  from  ani- 
mals, and  four  of  the  twelve  are  the  same  as  the 
Aztec." 

The  antiquity  of  most  of  the  monuments  is 
proved — e.  g.,  by  the  growth  of  trees  in  the  midst 
of  the  buildings  in  Yucatan.  Many  have  had 
time  to  attain  a  diameter  of  from  six  to  nine  feet. 
In  a  courtyard  at  Uxmal,  the  figures  of  tortoises 
sculptured  in  relief  upon  the  granite  pavement 
are  so  worn  away  by  the  feet  of  countless  genera- 
tions of  the  natives  that  the  design  of  the  artist  is 
scarcely  recognizable. 

The  Spanish  invaders  demolished  every  vestige 
of  the  Aztec  religious  monuments,  just  as  Roman 
Catholic  images  and  paraphernalia  were  once 
treated  by  the  "straitest  sects"  of  Protestants,  or 
even  Mohammedans. 

The  beautiful  plateau  around  the  lakes  of 
Mexico,  as  well  as  other  central  portions  of 
America,  were  without  any  doubt  occupied  from 
the  earliest  ages  by  peoples  who  gradually  ad- 
vanced in  civilization  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion and  passed  through  cycles  of  revolutions — 
in  one  century  relapsing,  in  another  advancing  by 
leaps  and  bounds  by  an  infusion  of  new  blood  or 
a  change  of  environment — exactly  similar  to  the 
checkered  annals  of  the  successive  dynasties  in 
the  Nile  Valley  and  the  plains  of  Babylonia.  In 
the  New  World,  as  in  the  Old  World,  from  pre- 
historic times  wealth  was  accumulated  at  such 
centers,  bringing  additional  comfort  and  refine- 
ment, and  implying  the  practise  of  the  useful  arts 


5 6    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

and  some  applications  of  science.  As  to  the 
legendary  migrations  or  even  those  extinct  races 
whose  names  still  remain,  Max  Miiller  said :  * 

The  traditions  are  no  better  than  the  Greek  traditions 
about  Pelasgians,  yEolians,  and  lonians,  and  it  would  be  a 
mere  waste  of  time  to  construct  out  of  such  elements  a  sys- 
tematic history,  only  to  be  destroyed  again  sooner  or  later, 
by  some  Niebuhr,  Grote,  or  Lewis. 

Anahuac  (i.  e.,  '"waterside"  or  "the  lake-coun- 
try"), in  the  early  centuries  of  our  era,  was  a 
name  of  the  country  round  the  lakes  and  town 
afterward  called  Mexico.  To  this  center,  as  a 
place  for  settlement,  there  came  from  the  north 
or  northwest  a  succession  of  tribes  more  or  less 
allied  in  race  and  language — especially  (according 
to  one  theory)  the  Toltecs  from  Tula,  and  the 
Aztecs  from  Aztlan.  Tula,  north  of  the  Mexican 
Valley,  had  been  the  first  capital  of  the  Toltecs, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest  there 
were  remains  of  large  buildings  there.  Most  of 
the  extensive  temples  and  other  edifices  found 
throughout  "New  Spain"  were  attributed  to  this 
race  and  the  word  "toltek"  became  synonymous 
with  "architect." 

Some  five  centuries  after  the  Toltecs  had  aban- 
doned Tula,  the  Aztecs  or  early  Mexicans  arrived 
to  settle  in  the  Valley  of  Anahuac.  With  the 
Aztecs  came  the  Tezcucans,  whose  capital,  Tez- 
cuco,  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  Mexican  lake, 
has  given  it  its  still  surviving  name. 

The  Aztecs,  again,  after  long  migrations  from 
place  to  place,  finally,  in  A.  D.  1325,  halted  on  the 

*  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  i,  327. 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  57 

southwestern  shores  of  the  great  lake.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  a  heavenly  vision  thus  announced 
the  site  of  their  future  capital : 

They  beheld  perched  on  the  stem  of  a  prickly-pear, 
which  shot  out  from  the  crevice  of  a  rock  washed  by  the 
waves,  a  royal  eagle  of  extraordinary  size  and  beauty,  with 
a  serpent  in  its  talons,  and  its  broad  wings  opened  to  the 
rising  sun.  They  hailed  the  auspicious  omen,  announced 
by  an  oracle  as  indicating  the  sight  of  their  future  city,  and 
laid  its  foundations  by  sinking  piles  into  the  shallows  ;  for 
the  low  marshes  were  half  buried  under  water.  .  .  .  The 
place  was  called  Tenochtitlan  (i.  e.  "the  cactus  on  a  rock") 
in  token  of  its  miraculous  origin.  [Such  were  the  humble 
beginnings  of  the  Venice  of  the  Western  World.]  * 

To  this  day  the  arms  of  the  Mexican  republic 
show  the  device  of  the  eagle  and  the  cactus — to 
commemorate  the  legend  of  the  foundation  of  the 
capital — afterward  called  Mexico  from  the  name 
of  their  war-god.  Fiercer  and  more  warlike  than 
their  brethren  of  Tezcuco,  the  men  of  the  latter 
town  were  glad  of  their  assistance,  when  invaded 
and  defeated  by  a  hostile  tribe.  Thus  Mexico 
and  Tezcuco  became  close  allies,  and  by  the  time 
of  Montezuma  I,  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  their  sovereignty  had  extended  beyond 
their  native  plateau  to  the  coast  country  along  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  capital  rapidly  increased  in 
population,  the  original  houses  being  replaced  by 
substantial  stone  buildings.  There  are  documents 
showing  that  Tenochtitlan  was  of  much  larger 
dimensions  than  the  modern  capital  of  Mexico,  on 
the  same  site.  Just  before  the  arrival  of  the  Span- 
iards, at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 

*  Prescott,  i,  i,  pp.  8,  9. 


58    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

the  kingdom  extended  from  the  gulf  across  to  the 
Pacific  ;  and  southward  under  the  ruthless  Ahuit- 
zotl  over  the  whole  of  Guatemala  and  Nicaragua. 

The  Aztecs  resembled  the  ancient  Peruvians  in 
very  few  respects,  one  being  the  use  of  knots  on 
strings  of  different  colors  to  record  events  and 
numbers.  Compare  our  account  of  "the  quipu" 
in  Chapter  X.  The  Aztecs  seem  to  have  replaced 
that  rude  method  of  making  memoranda  during 
the  seventh  century  by  picture-writing.  Before, 
the  Spanish  invasion,  thousands  of  native  clerks 
or  chroniclers  were  employed  in  painting  on  veg- 
etable paper  and  canvas.  Examples  of  such  man- 
uscripts may  still  be  seen  in  all  the  great  museums. 
Their  contents  chiefly  refer  to  ritual,  astrology, 
the  calendar,  annals  of  the  kings,  etc. 

Most  of  the  literary  productions  of  the  ancient 
Mexicans  were  stupidly  destroyed  by  the  Spanish 
under  Cortes.  The  first  Archbishop  of  Mexico 
founded  a  professorship  in  1553  for  expounding 
the  hieroglyphs  of  the  Aztecs,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing century  the  study  was  abandoned.  Even  the 
native-born  scholars  confessed  that  they  were  un- 
able to  decipher  the  ancient  writing.  One  of  the 
most  ancient  books  (assigned  to  Tula,  the  "Tol- 
tec"  capital,  A.  D.  660,  and  written  by  Huetmatzin, 
an  astrologer),  describes  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  the  stars  in  their  constellations,  the  ar- 
rangement of  time  in  the  official  calendar,  with 
some  geography,  mythology,  and  cosmogony.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  the  King  of  Tezcuco  pub- 
lished sixty  hymns  in  honor  of  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing, with  an  elegy  on  the  destruction  of  a  town, 
and  another  on  the  instability  of  human  greatness. 

In  the  same  century  the  three  Anahuac  states 


CIVILIZATION   OF  THE  AZTECS  59 

(Acolhua,  Mexico,  and  Tlacopan)  formed  a  con- 
federacy with  a  constant  tendency  to  give  Mexico 
the  supremacy.  The  two  capitals  looking  at  each 
other  across  the  lake  were  steadily  growing  in 
importance,  with  all  the  adjuncts  of  public  works 
— causeways,  canals,  aqueducts,  temples,  palaces, 
gardens,  and  other  evidences  of  wealth. 

The  horror  and  disgust  caused  by  the  Aztec 
sacrificial  bloodshed  are  greatly  increased  by  con- 
sidering the  number  of  the  victims.  The  kings 
actually  made  war  in  order  to  provide  as  many 
victims  as  possible  for  the  public  sacrifices — 
especially  on  such  an  occasion  as  a  coronation 
or  the  consecration  of  a  new  temple.  Captives 
were  sometimes  reserved  a  considerable  time  for 
the  purpose  of  immolation.  It  was  the  regular 
method  of  the  Aztec  warrior  in  battle  not  to  kill 
one's  opponent  if  he  could  be  made  a  captive ;  to 
take  him  alive  was  a  meritorious  act  in  religion. 
In  fact,  the  Spaniards  in  this  way  frequently  es- 
caped death  at  the  hands  of  their  Mexican  oppo- 
nents. When  King  Montezuma  was  asked  by  a 
European  general  why  he  had  permitted  the  re- 
public of  Tlascala  to  remain  independent  on  the 
borders  of  his  kingdom,  his  reply  was,  "That  she 
might  furnish  me  with  victims  for  my  gods." 

In  reckoning  the  number  of  victims  Prescott 
seems  to  have  trusted  too  implicitly  to  the  almost 
incredible  accounts  of  the  Spanish.  Zumurraga, 
the  first  Bishop  of  Mexico,  asserts  that  20,000 
were  sacrificed  annually,  but  Casas  points  out 
that  with  such  a  "waste  of  the  human  species,"  as 
is  implied  in  some  histories,  the  country  could  not 
have  been  so  populous  as  Cortes  found  it.  The  es- 
timate of  Casas  is  "that  the  Mexicans  never  sacri- 


60    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

ficed  more  than  fifty  or  a  hundred  persons  in  a 
year." 

Notwithstanding  the  wholesale  bloodshed  be- 
fore the  shrines  of  their  gory  gods,  we  can  still 
assign  to  the  Aztecs  a  high  degree  of  civilization. 
The  history  of  even  modern  Europe  will  illustrate 
this  statement,  although  apparently  paradoxical. 

Consider  "the  condition  of  some  of  the  most 
polished  countries  in  the  sixteenth  century  after 
the  establishment  of  the  modern  Inquisition — an 
institution  which  yearly  destroyed  its  thousands 
by  a  death  more  painful  than  the  Aztec  sacrifices, 
.  .  .  which  did  more  to  stay  the  march  of  im- 
provement than  any  other  scheme  ever  devised  by 
human  cunning.  .  .  .  Human  sacrifice  was  some- 
times voluntarily  embraced  by  the  Aztecs  as  the 
most  glorious  death,  and  one  that  opened  a  sure 
passage  into  paradise.  The  Inquisition,  on  the 
other  hand,  branded  its  victims  with  infamy  in 
this  world,  and  consigned  them  to  everlasting 
perdition  in  the  next." 

The  difficulty  with  the  Aztecs  is  how  to  recon- 
cile such  refinement  as  their  extinct  civilization 
showed  with  their  savage  enjoyment  of  bloodshed. 
"No  captive  was  ever  ransomed  or  spared ;  all 
were  sacrificed  without  mercy,  and  their  flesh  de- 
voured." The  first  of  the  four  chief  counselors  of 
the  empire  was  called  the  "Prince  of  the  Deadly 
Lance,"  the  second  "Divider  of  Men,"  the  third 
"Shedder  of  Blood,"  the  fourth  "the  Lord  of  the 
Dark  House." 

The  temples  were  very  numerous,  generally 
merely  pyramidal  masses  of  clay  faced  with  brick 
or  stone.  The  roof  was  a  broad  area  on  which 
stood  one  or  two  towers,  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  6 1 

height,  forming  the  sanctuaries  of  the  presiding 
deities,  and  therefore  containing  their  images. 
Before  these  sanctuaries  stood  the  dreadful  stone 
of  sacrifice.  There  were  also  two  altars  with 
sacred  fires  kept  ever  burning. 

All  the  religious  services  were  public,  and  the 
pyramidal  temples,  with  stairs  round  their  mas- 
sive sides,  allowed  the  long  procession  of  priests 
to  be  visible  as  they  ceremoniously  ascended  to 
perform  the  dread  office  of  slaughtering  the  hu- 
man victims. 

Human  sacrifices  had  not  originally  been  a 
feature  of  the  Aztec  worship.  But  about  200 
years  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spanish  invaders 
was  the  beginning  of  this  religious  atrocity,  and 
at  last  no  public  festival  was  considered  complete 
without  some  human  bloodshed. 

Prescott  takes  as  an  example  the  great  festival 
in  honor  of  Tezcatlipoca,  a  handsome  god  of  the 
second  rank,  called  "the  soul  of  the  world,"  and 
endowed  with  perpetual  youth. 

A  year  before  the  intended  sacrifice,  a  captive,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  personal  beauty  and  without  a  blemish 
on  his  body,  was  selected.  .  .  .  Tutors  took  charge  of  him 
and  instructed  him  how  to  perform  his  new  part  with  be- 
coming grace  and  dignity.  He  was  arrayed  in  a  splendid 
dress,  regaled  with  incense  and  with  a  profusion  of  sweet- 
scented  llowers.  .  .  .  When  he  went  abroad  he  was  at- 
tended by  a  train  of  the  royal  pages,  and  as  he  halted  in  the 
streets  to  play  some  favorite  melody,  the  crowd  prostrated 
themselves  before  him,  and  did  him  homage  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  their  good  deity.  .  .  .  Four  beautiful  girls, 
bearing  the  names  of  the  principal  goddesses,  were  se- 
lected, and  with  them  he  continued  to  live  idly,  feasted  at 
the  banquets  of  the  principal  nobles,  who  paid  him  all  the 


62    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

honors  of  a  divinity.  When  at  length  the  fatal  day  of 
sacrifice  arrived,  .  .  .  stripped  of  his  gaudy  apparel,  one 
of  the  royal  barges  transported  him  across  a  lake  to  a  tem- 
ple which  rose  on  its  margin.  .  .  .  Hither  the  inhabitants 
of  the  capital  flocked  to  witness  the  consummation  of  the 
ceremony.  As  the  sad  procession  wound  up  the  sides  of 
the  pyramid,  the  unhappy  victim  threw  away  his  gay  chap- 
lets  of  flowers  and  broke  in  pieces  his  musical  instruments. 
.  .  .  On  the  summit  he  was  received  by  six  priests,  whose 
long  and  matted  locks  flowed  in  disorder  over  their  sable 
robes,  covered  with  hierolgyphic  scrolls  of  mystic  import. 
They  led  him  to  the  sacrificial  stone,  a  huge  block  of  jasper, 
with  its  upper  surface  somewhat  convex.  On  this  the  vic- 
tim was  stretched.  Five  priests  secured  his  head  and 
limbs,  while  the  sixth,  clad  in  a  scarlet  mantle,  emblematic 
of  his  bloody  office,  dexterously  opened  the  breast  of  the 
wretched  victim  with  a  sharp  razor  of  itzli,  and  inserting 
his  hand  in  the  wound,  tore  out  the  palpitating  heart,  and 
after  holding  it  up  to  the  sun  (as  representing  the  supreme 
God),  cast  it  at  the  feet  of  the  deity  to  whom  the  temple 
was  devoted,  while  the  multitudes  below  prostrated  them- 
selves in  humble  adoration. 

Such  was  an  instance  of  the  human  sacrifices 
for  which  ancient  Mexico  became  infamous  to 
the  whole  civilized  world. 

One  instance  of  a  sacrifice  differing  from  the 
ordinary  sort  is  thus  given  by  a  Spanish  historian : 

A  captive  of  distinction  was  sometimes  furnished  with 
arms  for  single  combat  against  a  number  of  Mexicans  in 
succession.  If  he  defeated  them  all,  as  did  occasionally 
happen,  he  was  allowed  to  escape.  If  vanquished  he  was 
dragged  to  the  block  and  sacrificed  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  combat  was  fought  on  a  huge  circular  stone  before 
the  population  of  the  capital. 

Women  captives  were  occasionally  sacrificed 
before  those  bloodthirsty  gods,  and  in  a  season  of 


CIVILIZATION   OF  THE  AZTECS  63 

drought  even  children  were  sometimes  slaugh- 
tered to  propitiate  Tlaloc,  the  god  of  rain. 

Borne  along  in  open  litters,  dressed  in  their  festal  robes 
and  decked  with  the  fresh  blossoms  of  spring,  they  moved 
the  hardest  hearts  to  pity,  though  their  cries  were  drowned 
in  the  wild  chant  of  the  priests  who  read  in  their  tears  a 
favorable  augury  for  the  rain  prayer. 

One  Spanish  historian  informs  us  that  these 
innocent  victims  of  this  repulsive  religion  were 
generally  bought  by  the  priests  from  parents  who 
were  poor. 

We  may  now  resume  the  traditional  setttlement 
of  the  ancient  Mexicans  on  the  region  called  Ana- 
huac,  including  all  the  fertile  plateau  and  extend- 
ing south  to  the  lake  of  Nicaragua.  The  chief 
tribes  of  the  race  were  said  to  have  come  from 
California,  and  after  being  subject  to  the  Colhua 
people  asserted  their  independence  about  A.  D. 
1325.  Soon  afterward,  their  first  capital,  Tenoch- 
titlan,  was  built  on  the  site  of  Alexico,  their  per- 
manent center.  For  several  generations  they 
lived,  like  their  remote  ancestors,  the  Red  Men  of 
the  Woods,  as  hunters,  fishers,  and  trappers,  but 
at  last  their  prince  or  chief  cazique  was  powerful 
enough  to  be  called  king.  The  rule  of  this  Aztec 
prince,  beginning  A.  D.  1440,  marked  the  begin- 
ning of  their  greatness  as  a  race.  It  became  a 
rule  of  their  kingdom  that  every  new  king  must 
gain  a  victory  before  being  crowned  ;  and  thus  by 
the  conquest  of  a  new  nation  furnish  a  supply  of 
captives  to  gratify  their  tutelary  deity  by  the  nec- 
essary human  sacrifices.  In  1502  the  younger 
Montezuma  ascended  the  throne.  He  is  better 


64    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

known  to  us  than  the  previous  kings,  because  it 
was  in  his  reign  that  the  Spanish  conquerors  ap- 
peared on  the  scene.  From  the  time  of  Cortes 
the  history  of  the  Aztecs  becomes  part  of  that  of 
the  Mexicans.  They  were  easily  conquered  by 
the  European  troops,  partly  because  of  their  be- 
trayal by  various  of  the  neighboring  nations 
whom  they  had  formerly  conquered.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century,  according  to 
Prescott,  the  Aztec  king  ruled  the  continent  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

From  the  scientific  side  of  their  extinct  civiliza- 
tion it  is  their  knowledge  of  astronomy  that 
chiefly  causes  astonishment  (see  also  p.  85).  As 
in  the  case  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Babylonians,  a 
motive  for  the  study  of  the  stars  and  planets  was 
the  priestly  one  of  accurately  fixing  the  religious 
festivals.  The  tropical  year  being  thus  ascer- 
tained, their  tables  showed  the  exact  time  of  the 
equinox  or  sun's  transit  across  the  equatorial,  and 
of  the  solstice.  From  a  very  early  period  they 
had  practised  agriculture,  growing  Indian  corn 
and  "Mexican  aloe."  Having  no  animals  of  draft, 
such  as  the  horse,  or  ox,  their  farming  was  natu- 
rally of  a  rude  and  imperfect  sort. 

"The  degree  of  civilization,"  says  Prescott, 
"which  the  Aztecs  reached,  as  inferred  by  their 
political  institutions,  may  be  considered,  perhaps, 
not  much  short  of  that  enjoyed  by  our  Saxon 
ancestors  under  Alfred." 

In  a  passage  comparing  the  Aztecs  to  the 
American  Indians,  we  read : 

The  latter  has  something  peculiarly  sensitive  in  his 
nature.     He  shrinks  instinctively  from   the  rude   touch 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  6$ 

of  a  foreign  hand.  Even  when  this  foreign  influence 
comes  in  the  form  of  civilization  he  seems  to  sink  and  pine 
away  beneath  it.  It  has  been  so  with  the  Mexicans.  Un- 
der the  Spanish  domination  their  numbers  have  silently 
melted  away.  Their  energies  are  broken.  They  no  longer 
tread  their  mountain  plains  with  the  conscious  independ- 
ence of  their  ancestors.  In  their  faltering  step  and  meek 
and  melancholy  aspect  we  read  the  sad  characters  of  the 
conquered  race.  .  .  .  Their  civilization  was  of  the  hardy 
character  which  belongs  to  the  wilderness.  The  fierce 
virtues  of  the  Aztec  were  all  his  own. 

Humboldt  found  some  analogy  between  the 
Aztec  theory  of  the  universe,  as  taught  by  the 
priests,  and  the  Asiatic  "cosmogonies."  The  Az- 
tecs, in  explaining  the  great  mystery  of  man's 
existence  after  death,  believed  that  future  time 
would  revolve  in  great  periods  or  cycles,  each  em- 
bracing thousands  of  years.  At  the  end  of  each 
of  the  four  cycles  of  future  time  in  the  present 
world,  "the  human  family  will  be  swept  from  the 
earth  by  the  agency  of  one  of  the  elements,  and 
the  sun  blotted  out  from  the  heavens  to  be  again 
rekindled." 

The  priesthood  comprised  a  large  number  who 
were  skilled  in  astrology  and  divination.  The 
great  temple  of  Mexico,  alone,  had  5,000  priests 
in  attendance,  of  whom  the  chief  dignitaries  su- 
perintended the  dreadful  rites  of  human  sacrifice. 
Others  had  management  of  the  singing  choirs 
with  their  musical  accompaniment  of  drums  and 
other  instruments ;  others  arranged  the  public 
festivals  according  to  the  calendar,  and  had 
charge  of  the  hieroglyphical  word-painting  and 
oral  traditions.  One  important  section  of  the 
priesthood  were  teachers,  responsible  for  the  edu- 
5 


66    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

cation  of  the  children  and  instruction  in  religion 
and  morality.  The  head  management  of  the  hier- 
archy or  whole  ecclesiastical  system,  was  under 
two  high  priests — the  more  dignified  that  they 
were  chosen  by  the  king  and  principal  nobles 
without  reference  to  birth  or  social  station.  These 
high  priests  were  consulted  on  any  national  emer- 
gency, and  in  precedency  of  rank  were  superior 
to  every  man  except  the  king.  Montezuma  is  said 
to  have  been  a  priest. 

The  priestly  power  was  more  absolute  than 
any  ever  experienced  in  Europe.  Two  remark- 
able peculiarities  were  that  when  a  sinner  was 
pardoned  by  a  priest,  the  certificate  afterward 
saved  the  culprit  from  being  legally  punished  for 
any  offense;  secondly,  there  could  be  no  pardon 
for  an  offense  once  atoned  for  if  the  offense  were 
repeated.  "Long  after  the  conquest,  the  simple 
natives  when  they  came  under  the  arm  of  the  law, 
sought  to  escape  by  producing  the  certificate  of 
their  former  confession."  (Prescott,  i,  33.) 

The  prayer  of  the  priest-confessor,  as  reported 
by  a  Spanish  historian,  is  very  remarkable : 

"  O,  merciful  Lord,  thou  who  knowest  the  secrets  of  afl 
hearts,  let  thy  forgiveness  and  favor  descend,  like  the  pure 
waters  of  heaven,  to  wash  away  the  stains  from  the  soul. 
Thou  knowest  that  this  poor  man  has  sinned,  not  from  his 
own  free  will,  but  from  the  influence  of  the  sign  under 
which  he  was  born.  .  .  . 

After  enjoining  on  the  penitent  a  variety  of  minute  cere- 
monies by  way  of  penance,  the  confessor  urges  the  neces- 
sity of  instantly  procuring  a  slave  for  sacrifice  to  the  Deity. 

In  the  schools  under  the  clergy  the  boys  were 
taught  by  priests  and  the  girls  by  priestesses. 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  67 

There  was  a  higher  school  for  instruction  in  tradi- 
tion and  history,  the  mysteries  of  hieroglyphs,  the 
principles  of  government,  and  certain  branches  of 
astronomical  and  natural  science. 

In  the  education  of  their  children  the  Mexican 
community  were  very  strict,  but  from  a  letter  pre- 
served by  one  of  the  Spanish  historians,  we  can 
not  doubt  the  womanly  affection  of  a  mother 
who  thus  wrote  to  her  daughter : 

My  beloved  daughter,  very  dear  little  dove,  you  have 
already  heard  and  attended  to  the  words  which  your  father 
has  told  you.  They  are  precious  words,  which  have  pro- 
ceeded from  the  bowels  and  heart  in  which  they  were  treas- 
ured up  ;  and  your  beloved  father  well  knows  that  you,  his 
daughter,  begotten  of  him,  are  his  blood  and  his  flesh  ;  and 
God  our  Lord  knows  that  it  is  so.  Although  you  are  a 
woman,  and  are  the  image  of  your  father,  what  more  can 
I  say  to  you  than  has  already  been  said?  .  .  .  My  dear 
daughter,  whom  I  tenderly  love,  see  that  you  live  in  the 
world  in  peace,  tranquillity,  and  contentment — see  that  you 
disgrace  not  yourself,  that  you  stain  not  your  honor,  nor 
pollute  the  luster  and  fame  of  your  ancestors.  .  .  .  May 
God  prosper  you,  my  first-born,  and  may  you  come  to 
God,  who  is  in  every  place.* 


Some  trace  of  a  "natural  piety,"  which  will 
probably  surprise  our  readers,  is  also  found  in 
the  ceremony  of  Aztec  baptism,  as  described  by 
the  same  writer.  After  the  head  and  lips  of  the 
infant  were  touched  with  water  and  a  name  given 
to  it,  the  goddess  Cioacoatl  was  implored  "that 
the  sin  which  was  given  to  us  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  world  might  not  visit  the  child,  but 

*  Sahagun,  Hist,  de  Nueva  Espana,  vi,  19. 


68    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

that,  cleansed  by  these  waters,  it  might  live  and 
be  born  anew."     In  Sahagun's  account  we  read : 

When  all  the  relations  of  the  child  were  assembled,  the 
midwife,  who  was  the  person  that  performed  the  rite  of 
baptism,  was  summoned.  When  the  sun  had  risen,  the 
midwife,  taking  the  child  in  her  arms,  called  for  a  little 
earthen  vessel  of  water.  .  .  .  To  perform  the  rite,  she 
placed  herself  with  her  face  toward  the  west,  and  began  to 
go  through  certain  ceremonies.  .  .  .  After  this  she  sprin- 
kled water  on  the  head  of  the  infant,  saying,  "O  my  child! 
receive  the  water  of  the  Lord  of  the  world,  which  is  our  life, 
and  is  given  for  the  increasing  and  renewing  of  our  body. 
It  is  to  wash  and  to  purify."  .  .  .  [After  a  piayer]  she 
took  the  child  in  both  hands,  and  lifting  him  toward 
heaven  said,  "O  Lord,  thou  seest  here  thy  creature  whom 
thou  hast  sent  into  this  world,  this  place  of  sorrow,  suffer- 
ing, and  penitence.  Grant  him,  O  Lord,  thy  gifts  and 
thine  inspiration." 

The  science  of  the  Aztecs  has  excited  the 
wonder  of  all  competent  judges,  such  as  Hum- 
boldt  (already  quoted)  and  the  astronomer  La 
Place.  Lord  Kingsborough  remarks  in  his  great 
work: 

It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  Mexicans  were  ac- 
quainted with  many  scientifical  instruments  of  strange  in- 
vention; .  .  .  whether  the  telescope  may  not  have  been 
of  the  number  is  uncertain;  but  the  thirteenth  plate  of  M. 
Dupaix's  Monuments,  which  represents  a  man  holding 
something  of  a  similar  nature  to  his  eye,  affords  reason  to 
suppose  that  they  knew  how  to  improve  the  powers  of 
vision. 

References  to  the  calendar  of  the  Aztecs  should 
not  omit  the  secular  festival  occurring  at  the  end 
of  their  great  cycle  of  fifty-two  years.  From  the 


CIVILIZATION  OF  THE  AZTECS  69 

length  of  the  period,  two  generations,  one  might 
compare  it  with  the  "jubilee"  of  ancient  Israel — 
a  word  made  familiar  toward  the  close  of  Queen 
Victoria's  reign.  The  great  event  always-  took 
place  at  midwinter,  the  most  dreary  period  of  the 
year,  and  when  the  five  intercalary  days  arrived 
they  "abandoned  themselves  to  despair,"  breaking 
up  the  images  of  the  gods,  allowing  the  holy  fires 
of  the  temples  to  go  out,  lighting  none  in  their 
homes,  destroying  their  furniture  and  domestic 
utensils,  and  tearing  their  clothes  to  rags.  This 
disorder  and  gloom  signified  that  figuratively  the 
end  of  the  world  was  at  hand. 

On  the  evening  of  the  last  day,  a  procession  of  priests, 
assuming  the  dress  and  ornaments  of  their  gods,  moved 
from  the  capital  toward  a  lofty  mountain,  about  two 
leagues  distant.  They  carried  with  them  a  noble  victim, 
the  flower  of  their  captives,  and  an  apparatus  for  kindling 
t'ne  new  fire,  the  success  of  which  was  an  augury  of  the  re- 
newal of  the  cycle.  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  the 
procession  paused  till  midnight,  when,  as  the  constellation 
of  the  Pleiades*  approached  the  zenith,  the  new  fire  was 
kindled  by  the  friction  of  some  sticks  placed  on  the  breast 
of  the  victim.  The  flame  was  soon  communicated  to  a 
funeral-pyre  on  which  the  body  of  the  slaughtered  captive 
was  thrown.  As  the  light  streamed  up  toward  heaven, 
shouts  of  joy  and  triumph  burst  forth  from  the  countless 
multitudes  who  covered  the  hills,  the  terraces  of  the  tem- 
ples, and  the  housetops.  .  .  .  Couriers,  with  torches 
lighted  at  the  blazing  beacon,  rapidly  bore  them  over  every 
part  of  the  country.  ...  A  new  cycle  had  commenced  its 
march. 

*  A  famous  group  of  seven  small  stars  in  the  Bull  constella- 
tion. The  "seven  sisters"  appear  as  only  six  to  ordinary 
eyesight :  to  make  out  the  seventh  is  a  test  of  a  practised  eye 
and  excellent  vision. 


70    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

The  following  thirteen  days  were  given  up  to  festivity. 
.  .  .  The  people,  dressed  in  their  gayest  apparel,  and 
crowned  with  garlands  and  chaplets  of  flowers,  thronged 
in  joyous  procession  to  offer  up  their  oblations  and  thanks- 
givings in  the  temples.  Dances  and  games  were  instituted 
emblematical  of  the  regeneration  of  the  world. 

Prescott  compares  this  carnival  of  the  Aztecs 
to  the  great  secular  festival  of  the  Romans  or 
ancient  Etruscans,  which  (as  Suetonius  re- 
marked) "few  alive  had  witnessed  before,  or 
could  expect  to  witness  again."  The  ludi  scecu- 
lares  or  secular  games  of  Rome  were  held  only 
at  very  long  intervals  and  lasted  for  three  days 
and  nights. 

The  poet  Southey  thus  refers  to  the  ceremony 
of  opening  the  new  Aztec  cycle,  or  Circle  of  the 
Years. 

On  his  bare  breast  the  cedar  boughs  are  laid, 
On  his  bare  breast,  dry  sedge  and  odorous  gums, 
Laid  ready  to  receive  the  sacred  spark, 
And  blaze,  to  herald  the  ascending  sun, 
Upon  his  living  altar.     Round  the  wretch 
The  inhuman  ministers  of  rites  accurst 
Stand,  and  expect  the  signal  when  to  strike 
The  seed  of  fire.     Their  Chief,  apart  from  all, 

.  .  .  eastward  turns  his  eyes; 
For  now  the  hour  draws  nigh,  and  speedily 
He  looks  to  see  the  first  faint  dawn  of  day 
Break  through  the  orient  sky. 

Madoc,  ii,  *6. 


AMERICAN   ARCHEOLOGY  7 1 

CHAPTER  IV 
AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY 

LONG  before  the  time  of  Columbus  and  the 
Spanish  conquest  there  existed  on  the  table-land 
of  Mexico  two  great  races  or  nations,  as  has  al- 
ready been  shown,  both  highly  civilized,  and  both 
akin  in  language,  art,  and  religion.  Ethnologists 
and  antiquaries  are  not  agreed  as  to  their  origin 
or  the  development  of  their  civilization.  Many 
recent  critics  have  held  the  theory  that  there  had 
been  a  previous  people  from  whom  both  races 
inherited  their  extinct  civilization,  this  previous 
race  being  the  "Toltecs,"  whom  we  have  repeat- 
edly mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter.  To  that 
previous  race  some  attribute  the  colossal  stone- 
work around  Lake  Titicaca,  as  well  as  other  sur- 
vivals of  long-forgotten  culture.  Some  would 
even  class  them  with  the  "mound-builders"  of 
the  Ohio  Valley.  Other  recent  antiquaries,  how- 
ever, while  fully  admitting  the  Aztec-Tescucan 
civilization  to  be  real  and  historical,  treat  the  Tol- 
tec  theory  as  partly  or  entirely  mythical.  One 
writer  alleges,  after  the  manner  of  Max  Miiller, 
that  the  Toltecs  are  "simply  a  personification  of 
the  rays  of  light"  radiating  from  the  Aztec  sun- 
god. 

Leaving  abstract  theories,  we  shall  devote  this 
chapter  to  the  principal  facts  of  American 
archeology — especially  as  regards  the  races  and 
the  monuments  of  their  long  extinct  civilizations. 
Throughout  many  parts  of  both  North  and  South 


72     EXTINCT   CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

America,  and  over  large  areas,  the  red-skinned 
natives  continued  their  generations  as  their  ances- 
tors had  done  through  untold  centuries,  scarcely 
rising  above  the  state  of  rude,  uncultured  sons  of 
the  soil  living  as  hunters,  trappers,  fishers,  as  had 
been  done  immemorially 

When  wild  in  woods  the  noble  savage  ran, 

as  Dryden  puts  it.  But  in  Mexico,  Yucatan,  and 
Central  America,  Colombia,  and  Peru  there  were 
men  of  the  original  redskin  race  who  had  dis- 
tinctly attained  to  civilization  for  unknown  gen- 
erations before  the  time  of  Columbus.  Not  only 
so,  but  in  many  centers  of  wealth  and  population 
the  process  of  social  improvement  and  advance 
had  been  continuous  for  unrecorded  ages ;  and  in 
certain  cases  a  long  extinct  civilization  had  over- 
laid a  previous  civilization  still  more  remotely 
extinct.  Some  works  constructed  for  supplying 
water,  for  example,  could  only  have  been  applied 
to  that  purpose  when  the  climate  or  geological 
conditions  were  quite  different  from  what  they 
have  always  been  in  historical  times ! 

Who  is  the  red  man?  Compared  in  numbers 
with  the  yellow  man,  the  white  man,  or  even  the 
black,  he  is  very  unimportant,  being  only  one- 
tenth  as  great  as  the  African  race.*  In  American 
ethnology,  however,  the  red  man  is  all-important. 
Primeval  men  of  this  race  undoubtedly  formed 
the  original  stock  whence  during  the  centuries 
were  derived  all  the  numerous  tribes  of  "Indians" 

*  White  or  Caucasian  640,000,000,  yellow  or  Mongolian 
600,000,000,  black  or  African  200,000,000,  red  or  American 
20,000,000. 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  73 

found  in  either  North  or  South  America. 
Throughout  Asia  and  Africa  there  is  great  diver- 
sity in  type  among  the  races  that  are  indigenous ; 
but  as  to  America,  to  quote  Humboldt : 

The  Indians  of  New  Spain  [i.  e.,  Mexico]  bear  a  general 
resemblance  to  those  who  inhabit  Canada,  Florida,  Peru, 
and  Brazil.  We  have  the  same  swarthy  and  copper  color, 
straight  and  smooth  hair,  small  beard,  squat  body,  long 
eye,  with  the  corner  directed  upward  toward  the  temples, 
prominent  cheek-bones,  thick  lips,  and  expression  of  gentle- 
ness in  the  mouth,  strongly  contrasted  with  a  gloomy  and 
severe  look. 

Whence  the  original  red  men  of  America  were 
derived  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  date  is  too 
remote  and  the  data  too  few.  From  fossil  re- 
mains of  human  bones,  Agassiz  estimated  a  period 
of  at  least  ten  thousand  years ;  and  near  New  Or- 
leans, beneath  four  buried  forests,  a  skeleton  was 
found  which  was  possibly  fifty  thousand  years  old. 
If,  therefore,  the  redskins  branched  off  from  the 
yellow  man,  it  must  have  been  at  a  period  which 
lies  utterly  beyond  historic  ken  or  calculation. 

Some  recent  ethnologists  have  borrowed  the 
"glacier  theory"  from  the  science  of  geology,  in 
order  to  trace  the  development  of  civilization 
among  certain  races.  In  Switzerland  and  Green- 
land the  signs  of  the  action  of  a  glacier  can  be 
traced  and  recognized  just  as  we  trace  the  proofs 
of  the  action  of  water  in  a  dry  channel.  Visit  the 
front  of  a  glacier  in  autumn  after  the  summer  heat 
has  made  it  shrink  back,  you  will  see  ( i )  rounded 
rocks,  as  if  planed  on  the  top,  with  (2)  a  mixed 
mass  of  stones  and  gravel  like  a  rubbish-heap, 


74    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

scattered  on  (3)  a  mass  of  clay  and  sand,  con- 
taining boulders.  The  same  three  tests  are  fre- 
quently found  in  countries  where  there  have  been 
no  glaciers  within  the  memory  of  man. 

Such  traces,  found  not  only  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland,  but  in  northern  Germany  and 
Denmark,  prove  that  the  mountain  mass  of  Scan- 
dinavia was  the  nucleus  of  a  huge  ice-cap  ''radia- 
ting to  a  distance  of  not  less  than  1,000  miles,  and 
thick  enough  to  block  up  with  solid  ice  the  North 
Sea,  the  German  Ocean,  the  Baltic,  and  even  the 
Atlantic  up  to  the  100- fathom  line."  In  North 
America  the  same  thing  is  proved  by  similar  evi- 
dence. A  gigantic  ice-cap  extending  from  Can- 
ada has  glaciated  all  the  minor  mountain  ranges 
to  the  south,  sweeping  over  the  whole  continent. 
The  drift  and  boulders  still  remain  to  prove  the 
fact,  as  far  south  as  only  15°  north  of  the  tropic.  _ 
A  warm  oceanic  current,  like  the  Gulf  Stream  of 
the  Atlantic,  would  shorten  a  glacial  period.  • 
Speaking  of  Scotland,  one  authority  states  that" 
"if  the  Gulf  Stream  were  diverted  and  the  High- 
lands upheaved  to  the  height  of  the  New  Zealand 
Alps,  the  whole  country  would  again  be  buried 
under  glaciers  pushing  out  into  the  seas"  on  the 
west  and  east. 

The  theory  is  that  as  the  climate  became 
warmer,  the  ice-fronts  retreated  northward  by  the 
shrinking  of  the  glaciers,  and  therefore  the  ani- 
mals, including  man,  were  able  to  live  farther 
^  no.rtrf.  The  men  of  that  very  remote  period  were 
"Neolithic,"  and  some  of  the  stone  monuments 
are  attributed  to  them  that  were  formerly  called 
'"Druidic."  A  recent  writer  asks,  with  reference 
to  Stonehenge : 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  75 

Did  Neolithic  men  slowly  coming  northward,  as  the 
rigors  of  the  last  glacial  period  abated,  domicile  here,  and 
build  this  huge  gaunt  temple  before  they  passed  farther 
north,  to  degrade  and  dwindle  down  into  Eskimos  wander- 
ing the  dismal  coasts  of  arctic  seas? 

Another  writer,  with  reference  to  the  American 
ice-sheet,  says : 

During  the  second  glacial  epoch  when  the  great  boreal 
ice-sheet  covered  one-half  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, reaching  as  far  south  as  the  present  cities  of  Phila- 
delphia and  St.  Louis,  and  the  glaciated  portions  were  as 
unfit  for  human  occupation  as  the  snow-cap  of  Greenland 
is  to-day,  aggregations  of  population  clustered  around  the 
equatorial  zone,  because  the  climatic  conditions  were  con- 
genial. And  inasmuch  as  civilization,  the  world  over, 
clings  to  the  temperate  climates  and  thrives  there  best,  we 
are  not  surprised  to  learn  that  communities  far  advanced 
in  arts  and  architecture  built  and  occupied  those  great 
cities  in  Yucatan,  Honduras,  Guatemala,  and  other  Cen- 
tral American  states,  whose  populations  once  numbered 
hundreds  of  thousands. 

An  approximate  date  when  this  civilization  was  at  the 
acme  of  its  glory  would  be  about  ten  thousand  years  ago. 
This  is  established  by  observations  upon  the  recession  of 
the  existing  glacier  fronts,  which  are  known  to  drop  back 
twelve  miles  in  one  hundred  years. 

With  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  the  glacial  ice-sheet  the 
climate  grew  proportionately  milder,  and  flora  and  fauna 
moved  simultaneously  northward.  Some  emigrants  went 
to  South  America  and  settled  there,  carrying  their  customs, 
arts,  ceremonial  rites,  hieroglyphs,  architecture,  etc.;  and 
an  immense  exodus  took  place  into  Mexico,  which  ulti- 
mately extended  westward  up  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  subsequent  epochs  when  the  ice-sheet  had  withdrawn 
from  large  areas,  there  were  immense  influxes  of  people 
from  Asia  via  Bering  Strait  on  the  Pacific  side,  and  from 
northwestern  Europe  via  Greenland  on  the  Atlantic  side. 


7  6    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

The  Korean  immigration  of  the  year  544  led  to  the  founding 
of  the  Mexican  Empire  in  1325. 

To  trace  then  the  gradations  of  ascent  from 
the  native  American  —  called  "Indians"  by  a 
blunder  of  the  Great  Admiral,  as  afterward  they 
were  nicknamed  "redskins"  by  the  English  set- 
tlers— to  the  Mexicans,  Peruvians,  or  Colombians 
is  a  task  far  beyond  our  strength.  Leaving  the 
question  of  race,  therefore,  we  now  turn  to  the 
antiquarian  remains,  especially  the  architectural. 

The  prehistoric  civilization  which  was  devel- 
oped to  the  south  of  Mexico  is  generally  known  as 
"Mayan,"  although  the  Mayas  were  undoubtedly 
akin  to  the  Aztecs  or  early  Mexicans.  The 
Maya  tribes  in  Yucatan  and  Honduras,  from 
abundant  evidence,  must  have  risen  to  a  refine- 
ment in  prehistoric  times,  which,  in  several  re- 
spects, was  superior  to  that  of  the  Aztecs.  In 
architecture  they  were  in  advance  from  the  earliest 
ages  not  only  of  the  Aztec  peoples,  but  of  all  the 
American  races. 

In  Yucatan  the  Mayas  have  left  some  wonder- 
ful remains  at  Mayapan,  their  prehistoric  capital, 
and  near  it  at  a  place  called  Uxmal  which  has 
become  famous  from  its  vast  and  elaborate  struc- 
tures,* evidencing  a  knowledge  of  art  and  science 
which  had  flourished  in  this  region  for  centuries 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Spanish.  The  chief 
building  in  Uxmal  is  in  pyramidal  form,  the  prin- 
cipal design  in  the  ancient  Aztec  temples  (as  well 
as  those  of  Chaldea,  etc.),  consisting  of  three  ter- 
races faced  with  hewn  stone.  The  terraces  are 
in  length  575,  545,  and  360  feet  respectively ;  with 
*  See  Frontispiece. 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  77 

the  temple  on  the  summit,  322  feet,  and  a  great 
flight  of  stairs  leading  to  it.  The  whole  building 
is  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  richly  sculptured 
figures,  above  a  cornice.  At  Chichen,  also  in 
Yucatan,  there  is  an  area  of  two  miles  perimeter 
entirely  covered  with  architectural  ruins;  many 
of  the  roofs  having  apparently  consisted  of  stone 
arches,  painted  in  various  colors.  One  building, 
of  peculiar  construction,  proves  an  enigma  to  all 
travelers :  it  is  more  than  ninety  yards  long  and 
consists  of  two  parallel  walls,  each  ten  yards 
thick,  the  distance  between  them  being  also  ten 
yards.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  anoma- 
lous construction  had  reference  to  some  public 
games  by  which  the  citizens  amused  themselves  in 
that  long- forgotten  period.  Among  other  me- 
morials of  Mayan  architecture  in  this  country  is 
the  city  of  Tuloom  on  the  east  coast,  fortified 
with  strong  walls  and  square  towers.  A  more 
remarkable  "find"  in  the  dense  forests  of  Chiapas, 
in  the  same  country,  is  the  city  recorded  by  Ste- 
phens and  other  travelers.  It  is  near  the  coast, 
at  the  place  where  Cortes  and  his  Spanish  sol- 
diers were  moving  about  for  a  considerable  time, 
yet  they  do  not  appear  to  have  ever  seen  the  splen- 
did ruins,  or  to  have  at  all  suspected  their  ex- 
istence. Even  if  the  natives  knew,  the  Spaniards 
might  have  found  the  toil  of  forcing  a  passage 
through  such  forests  too  laborious.  The  name  of 
the  city  which  had  so  long  been  buried  under  the 
tropical  vegetation  was  quite  unknown,  nor  was 
there  any  tradition  of  it ;  but  when  found  it  was 
called  "Palenque,"  from  the  nearest  inhabited 
village.  There  were  substantial  and  handsome 
buildings  with  excellent  masonry,  and  in  many 


?8    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

cases  beautiful  sculptures  and  hieroglyphical 
figures. 

Merida,  the  capital  of  Yucatan,  is  on  the  site 
of  a  prehistoric  city  whose  name  had  also  become 
unknown.  When  building  the  present  town,  the 
Spaniards  utilized  the  ancient  buildings  as  quar- 
ries for  good  stones. 

The  larger  prehistoric  structures  are  frequently 
on  artificial  mounds,  being  probably  intended  for 
religious  or  ceremonial  purposes.  The  walls  both 
within  and  without  are  elaborately  decorated, 
sometimes  with  symbolic  figures.  Sometimes 
officials  in  ceremonial  costumes  are  seen  appar- 
ently performing  religious  rites.  These  are  often 
accompanied  by  inscriptions  in  low  relief,  with 
the  peculiar  Mayan  characters  which  some 
archeologists  call  "calculiform  hieroglyphs"  (v. 
p.  82). 

On  one  of  the  altar-slabs  near  Palenque  there 
occurs  a  sculptured  group 

of  several  figures  in  the  act  of  making  offerings  to  a  central 
object  shaped  like  the  Latin  cross.  "The  Latin,  the  Greek, 
and  the  Egyptian  cross  or  tail  (T)  were  evidently  sacred 
symbols  to  this  ancient  people,  bearing  some  religious 
meanings  derived  from  their  own  cult."* 

The  cross  occurs  frequently,  not  only  in  the 
Mayan  sculptures,  but  also  in  the  ceremonial  of 
the  Aztecs.  The  Spanish  followers  of  Cortes 
were  astonished  to  see  this  symbol  used  by  these 
"barbarians,"  as  they  called  them.  Winsor  (i, 
195)  says  that  the  Mayan  cross  has  been  ex- 
plained to  mean  "the  four  cardinal  points,  the 

*  D.  G.  Brinton. 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  79 

rain-bringers,  the  symbol  of  life  and  health" ;  and 
again,  "the  emblem  of  fire,  indeed  an  ornamental 
fire-drill." 

Students  of  architecture  find  a  rudimentary 
form  of  the  arch  occurring  in  some  of  the  ruins, 
notably  at  Palenque.  Two  walls  are  built  paral- 
lel to  each  other,  at  some  distance  apart,  then  at 
the  beginning  of  the  arch  the  layers  on  both  sides 
have  the  inner  stones  slightly  projecting,  each 
layer  projecting  a  little  more  than  the  previous 
one,  till  at  a  certain  height  the  stones  of  one  wall 
are  almost  touching  those  of  the  wall  opposite. 
Finally,  a  single  flat  stone  closes  in  the  space  be- 
tween and  completes  the  arch. 

In  Honduras,  on  the  banks  of  the  Copan,  the 
Spaniards  found  a  prehistoric  capital  in  ruins,  on 
an  elevated  area,  surrounded  by  substantial  walls 
built  of  dressed  stones,  and  enclosing  large 
groups  of  buildings.  One  structure  is  mainly 
composed  of  huge  blocks  of  polished  stone.  In 
several  houses  the  whole  of  the  external  surface 
is  covered  with  elaborate  carved  designs : 

The  adjacent  soil  is  covered  with  sculptured  obelisks, 
pillars,  and  idols,  with  finely  dressed  stones,  and  with 
blocks  ornamented  with  skilfully  carved  figures  of  the  char- 
acteristic Maya  hieroglyphs,  which,  could  they  be  de- 
ciphered, would  doubtless  reveal  the  story  of  this  strange 
and  solitary  city. 

In  western  Guatemala,  at  Utatla,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Quiches,  a  tribe  allied  to  the  Mayas, 
several  pyramids  still  remain.  One  is  120  feet 
high,  surmounted  by  a  stone  wall,  and  another  is 
ascended  by  a  staircase  of  nineteen  steps,  each 
nineteen  inches  in  height. 


So    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

The  literary  remains  (such  as  Alphabets, 
Hieroglyphs,  Manuscripts,  etc.)  of  the  Maya  and 
Aztec  races  are  in  some  respects  as  vivid  a  proof 
of  the  extinct  civilizations  as  any  of  the  archi- 
tectural monuments  already  discussed.  Both 
Aztecs  and  Mayans  of  Yucatan  and  Central 
America  used  picture-writing,  and  sometimes  an 
imperfect  form  of  hieroglyphics.  The  most  ele- 
mentary kind  was  simply  a  rough  sketch  of  a 
scene  or  historical  group  which  they  wished  to 
record.  When,  for  example,  Cortes  had  his  first 
interview  with  some  messengers  sent  by  Mon- 
tezuma,  one  of  the  Aztecs  was  observed  sketch- 
ing the  dress  and  appearance  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  then  completing  his  picture  by  using  colors. 
Even  in  recent  times  Indians  have  recorded  facts 
by  pictographs :  in  Harper's  Magazine  ( August, 
1902)  wre  read  that  "pictographs  and  painted 
rocks  to  the  number  of  over  3,000  are  scat- 
tered all  over  the  United  States,  from  the  Digh- 
ton  Rock,  Massachusetts  (i1.  pp.  27,  28),  to  the 
Kern  River  Canon  in  California,  and  from  the 
Florida  Cape  to  the  Mouse  River  in  Manitoba. 
The  identity  of  the  Indians  with  their  ancient 
progenitors  is  further  proved  by  relics,  mortuary 
customs,  linguistic  similarities,  plants  and  veg- 
etables, and  primitive  industrial  and  mechanical 
arts,  which  have  remained  constant  throughout 
the  ages."  The  pictographs  of  the  Kern  River 
Canon,  according  to  the  same  writer,  were  in- 
'scribed  on  the  rocks  there  "about  five  thousand 
years  ago." 

A  more  advanced  form  of  picture-writing  is 
frequently  found  in  the  Mayan  and  other  inscrip- 
tions and  manuscripts.  Two  objects  are  repre- 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  8l 

sented,  whose  names,  when  pronounced  together, 
give  a  sound  which  suggests  the  name  to  be  re- 
corded or  remembered.  Thus,  the  name  Glad- 
stone may  be  expressed  in  this  manner  by  two 
pictures,  one  a  laughing  face  (i.  e.,  "happy"  or 
"glad"  the  other  a  rock  (i.  e.,  "stone").  It  is  ex- 
actly the  same  contrivance  that  is  used  to  con- 
struct the  puzzle  called  a  "rebus." 

A  third  form  of  hieroglyphic  was  by  devising 
some  conventional  mark  or  symbol  to  suggest  the 
initial  sound  of  the  name  to  be  recorded.  Such 
a  mark  or  character  would  be  a  "letter,"  in  fact ; 
and  thus  the  prehistoric  alphabets  were  arrived 
at,  not  only  among  the  early  Mayans  of  Yucatan, 
etc.,  but  among  the  prehistoric  peoples  of  Asia, 
as  the  Chinese,  the  Hittites,  etc.,  as  well  as  the 
primeval  Egyptians.  Many  of  the  sculptures  in 
Copan  and  Palenque  to  which  we  have  referred 
contain  pictographs  and  hieroglyphs.  A  Spanish 
Bishop  of  Yucatan  drew  up  a  Mayan  alphabet  in 
order  to  express  the  hieroglyphs  on  monuments 
and  manuscripts  in  Roman  letters ;  but  much 
more  data  are  needed  before  scholars  will  read 
the  ancient  Mayan-Aztec  tongues  as  they  have 
been  enabled  to  understand  the  Egyptian  inscrip- 
tions or  the  cuneiform  records  of  Babylonia. 
For  the  American  hieroglyphs  we  still  lack  a  sec- 
ond Young  or  Champollion. 

There  are  three  famous  manuscripts  in  the 
Mayan  character: 

1.  The  Dresden  Codex,  preserved  in  the  Royal 
Library  of  that  city.    It  is  called  a  "religious  and 
astrological  ritual"  by  Abbe  Brasseur. 

2.  Codex  Troano,  in  Madrid,  described  in  two 
folios  by  Abbe  Brasseur. 

6 


82    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

3.  Codex  Peresianus,  named  from  the  wrap- 
per in  which  it  was  found,  1859,  which  had  the 
name  "Perez."  It  is  also  known  as  Codex  Mexi- 
canus. 

In  Lord  Kingsborough's  great  work  on  Mexi- 
can Antiquities  there  are  several  of  the  Mayan 
manuscripts  printed  in  facsimile,  and  others  in  a 
book  by  M.  Aubin,  of  Paris. 

Each  group  of  letters  in  a  Mayan  inscription 
is  enclosed  in  an  irregular  oval,  supposed  to  re- 
semble the  cross-section  of  a  pebble;  hence  the 
term  calculi  form  (i.  e.,  "pebble-shaped")  is  ap- 
plied to  their  hieroglyphs,  as  cuneiform  (i.  e., 
"wedge-shaped")  is  applied  to  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  letters. 

The  paper  which  the  prehistoric  Mexicans 
(Mayas,  Aztecs,  or  Tescucans,  etc.)  used  for 
writing  and  drawing  upon  was  of  vegetable 
origin,  like  the  Egyptian  papyrus.  It  was  made 
by  macerating  the  leaves  of  the  maguey,  a  plant 
of  the  greatest  importance  (v.  p.  94).  When 
the  surface  of  the  paper  was  glazed,  the  letters 
were  painted  on  in  brilliant  colors,  proceeding 
from  left  to  right,  as  we  do.  Each  book  was  a 
strip  of  paper,  several  yards  long  and  about  ten 
inches  wide,  not  rolled  round  a  stick,  as  the  vol- 
umes of  ancient  Rome  were,  but  folded  zigzag, 
like  a  screen.  The  protecting  boards  which  held 
the  book  were  often  artistically  carved  and 
painted. 

The  topics  of  the  ordinary  books,  so  far  as  we 
yet  know,  were  religious  ritual,  dreams,  and  pro- 
phecies, the  calendar,  chronological  notes,  medical 
superstitions,  portents  of  marriage  and  birth. 
The  written  language  was  in  common  and  ex- 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  83 

tensive  use  for  the  legal  conveyance  and  sale  of 
property. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  connected 
with  this  extinct  civilization  was  the  accuracy  of 
their  calendar  and  chronological  system.  Their 
calendar  was  actually  superior  to  that  then  exist- 
ing in  Europe.  They  had  two  years  :  one  for  civil 
purposes,  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days, 
divided  into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days,  be- 
sides five  supplementary  days ;  the  other,  a  ritual 
or  ecclesiastical  year,  to  regulate  the  public  fes- 
tivals. The  civil  year  required  thirteen  days  to  be 
added  at  the  end  of  every  fifty-two  years,  so  as 
to  harmonize  with  the  ritual  year.  Each  month 
contained  four  weeks  of  five  days,  but  as  each  of 
the  twenty  days  (forming  a  month)  had  a  distinct 
name,  Humboldt  concluded  that  the  names  were 
borrowed  from  a  prehistoric  calendar  used  in 
India  and  Tartary. 

Wilson  (Prehistoric  Man,  i,  133)  remarks: 

By  the  unaided  results  of  native  science  the  dwellers  on 
the  Mexican  plateau  had  effected  an  adjustment  of  civil 
to  solar  time  so  nearly  correct  that  when  the  Spaniards 
landed  on  their  coast,  their  own  reckoning  according  to  the 
unreformed  Julian  calendar,  was  really  eleven  days  in  er- 
ror, compared  with  that  of  the  barbarian  nation  whose 
civilization  they  so  speedily  effaced. 

In  1790  there  was  found  in  the  Square  of 
Mexico  a  famous  relic,  the  Mexican  Calendar 
Stone,  "one  of  the  most  striking  monuments  of 
American  antiquity."  It  was  long  supposed  to 
have  been  intended  for  chronological  purposes; 
but  later  authorities  call  it  a  votive  tablet  or 
sacrificial  altar.*  Similar  circular  stones  have 
*  Pp.  68-70,  v.  p.  95. 


84    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

been  dug  up  in  other  parts  of  Mexico  and  in 
Yucatan. 

Both  the  Mayas  and  the  Aztecs  excelled  in  the 
ordinary  arts  of  civilized  life.  Paper-making  has 
already  been  spoken  of.  Cotton  being  an  im- 
portant produce  of  their  soil,  they  understood  its 
spinning,  dyeing,  and  weaving  so  well  that  the 
Spaniards  mistook  some  of  the  finer  Aztec  fabrics 
for  silk.  They  cultivated  maize,  potatoes,  plan- 
tains, and  other  vegetables.  Both  in  Mexico  and 
Yucatan  they  produced  beautiful  work  in  feath- 
ers; metal  working  was  not  so  important  as  in 
some  countries,  being  chiefly  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. In  fact,  it  was  the  comparative  plenty  of 
gold  and  silver  around  Mexico  that  delayed  the 
invasion  of  the  Mayan  country  for  more  than 
twenty  years.  The  Mayas  had  developed  trade 
to  a  considerable  extent  before  the  Spanish  in- 
vasion, and  interchanged  commodities  with  the 
island  of  Cuba.  It  was  there,  accordingly,  that 
Columbus  first  saw  this  people,  and  first  heard  of 
Yucatan. 

Of  the  Mexican  remains  on  the  central  plateau, 
the  most  conspicuous  is  the  mound  or  pyramid  of 
Cholula,  although  it  retains  few  traces  of  pre- 
historic art.  A  modern  church  with  a  dome  and 
two  towers  now  occupies  the  summit,  with  a 
paved  road  leading  up  to  it.  It  is  chiefly  noted, 
first,  by  antiquaries,  as  having  originally  been  a 
great  temple  of  Quetzalcoatl,  the  beneficent  deity, 
famous  in  story;  and,  secondly,  for  the  fierce 
struggle  around  the  mound  and  on  the  slopes  be- 
tween the  Mexicans  and  Spanish.  (V.  pp.  130- 

I33-) 

Another  mound  in  this  district,  Yochicalco,  lies 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY  85 

seventy-five  miles  southwest  of  the  capital.  It  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  memorials  of  the  ex- 
tinct civilization,  consisting  of  five  terraces  sup- 
ported by  stone  walls,  and  formerly  surmounted 
by  a  pyramid. 

Passing  from  the  traces  of  Aztec  and  Mayan 
civilization,  we  may  now  glance  at  the  antiquities 
of  the  Colombian  states.  There  are  no  temples 
or  large  structures,  because  the  natives,  before  the 
Spanish  conquest,  used  timber  for  building,  but 
owing  to  the  abundance  of  gold  in  their  brooks 
and  rivers,  they  developed  skill  in  gold-working, 
and  produced  fine  ornaments  of  wonderful  beauty. 
Many  hollow  figures  have  been  found,  evidently 
cast  from  molds,  representing  men,  beasts,  and 
birds,  etc.  Stone-cutting  was  also  an  art  of  this 
ancient  race,  sometimes  applied  to  making  idols 
bearing  hieroglyphs. 

When  the  Spaniards  invaded  them  to  take  their 
gold  and  precious  stones,  the  "Chibchas,"  who 
then  held  the  Colombian  table-land  and  valleys, 
threw  large  quantities  of  those  valuables  into  a 
lake  near  Bogota,  the  capital.  It  was  afterward 
attempted  to  recover  those  treasures  by  draining 
off  the  water,  but  only  a  small  portion  was  found ; 
and  in  the  present  year  (1903)  a  new  engineering 
attempt  has  been  made.  A  Spanish  writer,  in 
1858,  asserted  that  evidence  was  found  in  the 
caves  and  mines  that  in  ancient  times  the  Colom- 
bians produced  an  alloy  of  gold,  copper,  and  iron 
having  the  temper  and  hardness  of  steel.  On  a 
tributary  of  the  River  Magdalena  there  are  many 
curious  stone  images,  sometimes  with  grotesquely 
carved  faces. 
Turning  next  to  the  mound-builders,  in  the 


86    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

Ohio  and  upper  Mississippi  Valley,  we  find 
traces  of  an  extinct  civilization  in  high  mounds, 
evidently  artificial,  extensive  embankments,  broad 
deep  ditches,  terraced  pyramids,  and  an  interest- 
ing variety  of  stone  implements  and  pottery. 
Some  mounds  were  for  burial-places,  others  for 
sacrificial  purposes,  others  again  as  a  site  for 
building,  like  those  we  have  seen  in  Mexico  and 
Maya.  Many  enclosures  contain  more  than  fifty 
acres  of  land ;  and  one  embankment  is  fifty  miles 
long.  Among  the  relics  associated  with  those 
works  are  articles  of  pottery,  knives,  and  copper 
ornaments,  hammered  silver,  mica,  obsidian, 
pearls,  beautifully  sculptured  pipes,  shells,  and 
stone  implements.  The  mounds  found  in  some  of 
the  Gulf  States  seem  to  confirm  a  theory  that  the 
mound-builders  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Choc- 
taw  Indians  and  their  allies,  and  had  been  driven 
southward. 

In  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley,  eastward  to 
the  seacoast,  there  are  many  large  earthworks, 
including  round  and  quadrilateral  mounds,  em- 
bankments, canals,  and  artificial  lakes.  Similar 
works  can  be  traced  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Florida.  Some  were  constructed  as  sites  for  large 
buildings.  The  tribes  to  whom  they  are  due  are 
now  known  to  have  been  agricultural — growing 
maize,  beans,  and  pumpkins ;  with  these  products 
and  those  of  the  chase  they  supported  a  consid- 
erable population. 

Among  other  antiquarian  remains  in  America 
are  the  cliff-houses  and  "pueblos."  The  former 
peculiarity  is  explained  by  the  deep  canons  of  the 
dry  table-land  of  Colorado.  Imagine  a  narrow 
deep  cutting  or  narrow  trench  worn  by  water- 


AMERICAN  ARCHEOLOGY 


courses  out  of  solid  rock,  deep  enough  to  afford  a 
channel  to  the  stream  from  500  to  1,500  feet  be- 
low the  plateau  above.  Next  imagine  one  of  the 
caves  which  the  water  many  ages  ago  had  worn 
out  of  the  perpendicular  sides  of  the  canon ;  and 
in  that  cave  a  substantial,  well-built  structure  of 
cut  stones  bedded  in 
firm  mortar.  Such  are 
the  "cliff  -  houses," 
sometimes  of  two  sto- 
ries. Occasionally 
there  is  a  watch-tower 
perched  on  a  conspic- 
uous point  of  rock 
near  a  cliff-dwelling, 
with  small  windows 
looking  to  the  east  and 
north.  These  curious 
buildings,  though  now 
prehistoric,  in  a  sense, 
are  believed  by  arche- 
ologists  to  be  later  than 
the  Spanish  conquest. 
Peru  is  very  impor- 
t  a  n  t  archeologically, 
but  some  interesting 
points  will  properly 
fall  under  our  general 
account  of  that  country 
Spain. 


Chulpa  or  Stone  Tomb  of 
Peruvians. 


the 


and   its   conquest   by 


In  Peruvian  architecture,  we  find  "Cyclopean 
walls,"  with  polygonal  stones  of  five  or  six  feet 
diameter,  so  well  polished  and  adjusted  that  no 
mortar  was  necessary ;  sometimes  with  a  project- 
ing part  of  the  stone  fitting  exactly  into  a  corre- 


S8    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

spending  cavity  of  the  stone  immediately  above 
or  below  it.  Such  huge  stones  are  of  hard  granite 
or  basalt,  etc.  The  walls  are  often  very  massive 
and  substantial,  sometimes  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  in  thickness.  The  only  approach  to  the 
modern  "arch"  in  the  Peruvian  structures  is  a 
device  similar  to  that  which  was  described  under 
the  Mayan  architecture. 

Some  important  buildings  were  surrounded 
with  large  upright  stones,  similar  to  the  famous 
"Druidic"  temple  at  Stonehenge.  All  of  the  chief 
structures  were  accurately  placed  with  reference 
to  the  cardinal  points,  and  the  main  entrance  al- 
ways faced  the  east.  The  Peruvian  tombs  were 
very  elaborate,  one  kind  being  made  by  cutting 
caverns  in  the  steep  precipices  of  the  cordillera 
and  then  carefully  walling  in  the  entrance.  An- 
other variety  (the  chulpa)  was  really  a  stone 
tower  erected  above  ground,  twelve  to  thirty  feet 
high.  The  chulpas  were  sometimes  built  in 
groups. 


CHAPTER  V 
MEXICO  BEFORE  THE  SPANISH  INVASION 

THE  Aztecs  and  the  Tescucans  were  the  chief 
races  occupying  the  great  table-land  of  Anahuac, 
including,  as  we  have  seen,  the  famous  Mexican 
Valley.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  set 
forth  some  of  the  leading  points  in  the  extinct 
civilization  of  those  races,  and  also  that  of  the 
Mayas,  who  in  several  respects  were  perhaps 
superior  to  the  Anahuac  kingdoms. 


MEXICO  BEFORE  THE  INVASION  89 

Several  features  of  the  early  Mexican  civiliza- 
tion will  come  before  us  as  we  accompany  the 
European  conquerors  in  their  march  over  the 
table-land.  Meantime,  we  glance  first  at  the 
geography  of  this  magnificent  region,  and  sec- 
ondly at  the  manners  and  institutions  of  the  peo- 
ple, their  industrial  arts,  etc.,  and  their  terrible 
religion.  The  last-mentioned  topic  has  already 
been  partly  discussed  in  Chapter  III. 

The  Tropic  of  Cancer  passes  through  the  mid- 
dle of  Mexico,  and  therefore  its  southern  half, 
which  is  the  most  important,  is  all  under  the 
burning  sun  of  the  "torrid  zone."  This  heat, 
however,  is  greatly  modified  by  the  height  of  the 
surface  above  sea-level,  since  the  country,  taken 
as  a  whole,  is  simply  an  extensive  table-land. 
The  height  of  the  plain  in  the  two  central  states, 
Mexico  and  Puebla,  is  8,000  feet,  or  about  double 
the  average  height  of  the  highest  summits  in  the 
British  Isles.  On  the  west  of  the  republic  is  a 
continuous  chain  of  mountains,  and  on  the  east 
of  the  table-land  run  a  series  of  mountainous 
groups  parallel  to  the  seacoast,  with  a  summit  in 
Vera  Cruz  of  over  13,400  feet.  To  the  south 
of  the  capital  an  irregular  range  running  east  and 
west  contains  these  remarkable  volcanoes — Co- 
lima,  14,400  feet;  Jorulla,  Popocatepetl,  17,800; 
Orizaba  (extinct),  18,300,  the  highest  summit  in 
Mexico,  and,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the 
mountains  of  Alaska,  in  North  America.  The 
great  plateau-basin  formed  around  the  capital  and 
its  lakes  is  completely  enclosed  by  mountains. 

This  high  table-land  has  its  own  climate  as 
compared  with  the  broad  tract  lying  along  the 
Atlantic.  Hence  the  latter  is  known  as  the  hot 


\ 
90    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

region  (caliente),  and  the  former  the  cold  region 
( fria).  Between  the  two  climates,  as  the  traveler 
mounts  from  the  sea-level  to  the  great  plateau,  is 
the  temperate  region  (templada),  an  intermediate 
belt  of  perpetual  humidity,  a  welcome  escape 
from  the  heat  and  deadly  malaria  of  the  hot 
region  with  its  "bilious  fevers."  Sometimes  as 
he  passes  along  the  bases  of  the  volcanic  moun- 
tains, casting  his  eye  "down  some  steep  slope  or 
almost  unfathomable  ravine  on  the  margin  of  the 
road,  he  sees  their  depths  glowing  with  the  rich 
blooms  and  enameled  vegetation  of  the  tropics." 
This  contrast  arises  from  the  height  he  has  now 
gained  above  the  hot  coast  region. 

The  climate  on  the  table-land  is  only  cold  in  a 
relative  sense,  being  mild  to  Europeans,  with  a 
mean  temperature  at  the  capital  of  60°,  seldom 
lowered  to  the  freezing-point.  The  "temperate" 
slopes  form  the  "Paradise  of  Mexico,"  from  "the 
balmy  climate,  the  magnificent  scenery,  and  the 
wealth  of  semitropical  vegetation." 

The  Aztec  and  Tescucan  laws  were  kept  in 
state  records,  and  shown  publicly  in  hieroglyphs. 
The  great  crimes  against  society  were  all  punished 
with  death,  including  the  murder  of  a  slave. 
Slaves  could  hold  property,  and  all  their  sons 
were  freedmen.  The  code  in  general  showed  real 
respect  for  the  leading  principles  of  morality. 

In  Mexico,  as  in  ancient  Egypt, 

the  soldier  shared  with  the  priest  the  highest  consideration. 
The  king  must  be  an  experienced  warrior.  The  tutelary 
deity  of  the  Aztecs  was  the  god  of  war.  A  great  object  of 
military  expeditions  was  to  gather  hecatombs  of  captives 
for  his  altars.  The  soldier  who  fell  in  battle  was  trans- 
ported at  once  to  the  region  of  ineffable  bliss  in  the  bright 


MEXICO   BEFORE   THE   INVASION  91 

mansions  of  the  sun.  .  .  .  Thus  every  war  became  a  cru- 
sade; and  the  warrior  was  not  only  raised  to  a  contempt 
of  danger,  but  courted  it — animated  by  a  religious  enthu- 
siasm like  that  of  the  early  Saracen  or  the  Christian  cru- 
tader. 

The  officers  of  the  armies  wore  rich  and  con- 
spicuous uniforms — a  tight-fitting  tunic  of  quilted 
cotton  sufficient  to  turn  the  arrows  of  the  native 
Indians  ;  a  cuirass  (for  superior  officers)  made  of 
thin  plates  of  gold  or  silver ;  an  overcoat  or  cloak 
of  variegated  feather- work ;  helmets  of  wood  or 
silver,  bearing  showy  plumes,  adorned  with  pre- 
cious stones  and  gold  ornaments.  Their  belts,  col- 
lars, bracelets,  and  earrings  were  also  of  gold  or 
silver. 

Southey,  in  his  poem,  makes  his  Welsh  prince, 
Macloc,  thus  boast : 

Their  mail,  if  mail  it  may  be  called,  was  woven 

Of  vegetable  down,  like  finest  flax, 

Bleached  to  the  whiteness  of  new-fallen  snow, 

.  .  Others  of  higher  office  were  arrayed 
In  feathery  breastplates,  of  more  gorgeous  hue 
Than  the  gay  plumage  of  the  mountain-cock, 
Than  the  pheasants'  glittering  pride.    But  what  were  these 
Or  what  the  thin  gold  hauberk,  when  opposed 
To  arms  like  ours  in  battle? 

Madoc,  i,  7. 

We  learn  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  to  their 
honor,  that  in  the  large  towns  hospitals  were 
kept  for  the  cure  of  the  sick  and  wounded  sol- 
diers, and  as  a  permanent  refuge  if  disabled.  Not 
only  so,  says  a  Spanish  historian,  but  "the  sur- 
geons placed  over  them  were  so  far  better  than 
those  in  Europe  that  they  did  not  protract  the 
cure  to  increase  the  pay." 


92     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

Even  the  red  man  of  the  woods,  as  we  learn 
from  Fenimore  Cooper  and  Catlin,  believes  rev- 
erently in  the  Great  Spirit  who  upholds  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  similarly  his  more  civilized  brother  of 
Mexico  or  Tezcuco  spoke  of  a  Supreme  Creator, 
Lord  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  In  their  prayers 
some  of  the  phrases  were : 

The  God  by  whom  we  live,  omnipresent,  knowing  all 
thoughts,  giving  all  gifts,  without  whom  man  is  nothing, 
invisible,  incorporeal,  of  perfect  perfection  and  purity,  un- 
der whose  wings  we  find  repose  and  a  sure  defense. 

Prescott,  however,  remarks  that  notwithstand- 
ing such  attributes  "the  idea  of  unity — of  a  being 
with  whom  volition  is  action,  who  has  no  need 
of  inferior  ministers  to  execute  his  purposes — 
was  too  simple,  or  too  vast,  for  their  understand- 
ings ;  and  they  sought  relief,  as  usual,  in  a 
plurality  of  deities,  who  presided  over  the  ele- 
ments, the  changes  of  the  seasons,  and  the  various 
occupations  of  man." 

The  Aztecs,  in  fact,  believed  in  thirteen  dii 
ma j ores  and  over  200  dii  minores.  To  each  of 
these  a  special  day  was  assigned  in  the  calendar, 
with  its  appropriate  festival.  Chief  of  them  all 
was  that  bloodthirsty  monster  Hiiitsilopochtli,  the 
hideous  god  of  war — tutelary  deity  of  the  nation. 
There  was  a  huge  temple  to  him  in  the  capital, 
and  on  the  great  altar  before  his  image  there,  and 
on  all  his  altars  throughout  the  empire,  the  reek- 
ing blood  of  thousands  of  human  victims  was  be- 
ing constantly  poured  out. 

The  terrible  name  of  this  Mexican  Mars  has 
greatly  puzzled  scholars  of  the  language.  Ac- 
cording to  one  derivation,  the  name  is  a  com- 


MEXICO   BEFORE  THE  INVASION 


93 


pound  of  two  words,  humming-bird  and  on  the 
left,  because  his  image  has  the  feathers  of  that 
bird  on  the  left  foot.  Prescott  naturally  thinks 
that  "too  amiable  an  etymology  for  so  ruffian  a 
deity.''  The  other  name  of  the  war-god,  Mexitl 
(i.  e.,  "the  hare  of  the  aloes"),  is  much  better 


QuetzalcoatL 

known,  because  from  it  is  derived  the  familiar 
name  of  the  capital. 

The  god  of  the  air,  Quetzalcoatl,  a  beneficent 
deity,  who  taught  Mexicans  the  use  of  metals, 
agriculture,  and  the  arts  of  government.  Prescott 
remarks  that 

he  was  doubtless  one  of  those  benefactors  of  their  species 
who  have  been  deified  by  the  gratitude  of  posterity. 

There  was  a  remarkable  tradition  of  Quetzal- 
coatl,  preserved  among  the  Mexicans,  that  he  had 
been  a  king,  afterward  a  god,  and  had  a  temple 


94    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

dedicated  to  his  worship  at  Cholula  *  when  on 
his  way  to  the  Mexican  Gulf.  Embarking  there, 
he  bade  his  people  a  long  farewell,  promising 
that  he  and  his  descendants  would  revisit  them. 
The  expectation  of  his  return  prepared  the  way 
for  the  success  of  the  tall  white-skinned  invaders. 

In  the  Aztec  agriculture,  the  staple  plant  was 
of  course  the  maize  or  Indian  corn.  Humboldt 
tells  us  that  at  the  conquest  it  was  grown  through- 
out America,  from  the  south  of  Chile  to  the  River 
St.  Lawrence ;  and  it  is  still  universal  in  the  New 
World.  Other  important  plants  on  the  Aztec 
soil  were  the  banana,  which  (according  to  one 
Spanish  writer)  was  the  forbidden  fruit  that 
tempted  our  poor  mother  Eve;  the  cacao,  whose 
fruit  supplies  the  valuable  chocolate;  the  vanilla, 
used  for  flavoring;  and  most  important  of  all, 
the  maguey,  or  Mexican  aloe,  much  valued  be- 
cause its  leaves  were  manufactured  into  paper, 
and  its  juice  by  fermentation  becomes  the  na- 
tional intoxicant,  "pulque."  The  maguey,  or 
great  Mexican  aloe,  grown  all  over  the  table- 
land, is  called  "the  miracle  of  nature,"  pro- 
ducing not  only  the  pulque,  but  supplying  thatch 
for  the  cottages,  thread  and  cords  from  its  tough 
fiber,  pins  and  needles  from  the  thorns  which 
grow  on  the  leaves,  an  excellent  food  from  its 
roots,  and  writing-paper  from  its  leaves.  One 
writer,  after  speaking  of  the  "pulque"  being  made 
from  the  "maguey,"  adds,  "with  what  remains  of 
these  leaves  they  manufacture  excellent  and  very 
fine  cloth,  resembling  holland  or  the  finest  linen." 

The  itztli,  formerly  mentioned  as  being  used 

at  the   sacrifices   by   the   officiating  priest,    was 

*  The  ruins  were  referred  to  in  chap,  iv,  (v.  p.  84,  also  130.) 


MEXICO  BEFORE  THE  INVASION  95 

"obsidian,"  a  dark  transparent  mineral,  of  the 
greatest  hardness,  and  therefore  useful  for  ma- 
king knives  and  razors.  The  Mexican  sword  was 
serrated,  those  of  the  finest  quality  being  of  course 
edged  with  itztli.  Sculptured  figures  abounded 
in  every  Aztec  temple  and  town,  but  in  design 
very  inferior  to  the  ancient  specimens  of  Egypt 
and  Babylonia,  not  to  mention  Greece.  A  re- 
markable collection  of  their  sculptured  images 
occurred  in  the  place  or  great  square  of  Mexico — 
the  Aztec  forum — and  similar  spots.  Ever  since 
the  Spanish  invasion  the  destruction  of  the  native 
objects  of  art  has  been  ceaseless  and  ruthless. 
"Two  celebrated  bas-reliefs  of  the  last  Monte- 
zuma  and  his  father,"  says  Prescott,  "cut  in  the 
solid  rock,  in  the  beautiful  groves  of  Chapoltepec, 
were  deliberately  destroyed,  as  late  as  the  last 
century  [i.  e.,  the  eighteenth],  by  order  of  the 
government."  He  further  remarks  : 

This  wantonness  of  destruction  provokes  the  bitter 
animadversion  of  the  Spanish  writer  Martyr,  whose  en- 
lightened mind  respected  the  vestiges  of  civilization  wher- 
ever found.  "The  conquerors,"  says  he,  "seldom  repaired 
the  buildings  that  they  defaced;  they  would  rather  sack 
twenty  stately  cities  than  erect  one  good  edifice." 

The  pre-Columbian  Mexicans  inherited  a  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  mechanics  and  engineering. 
The  Calendar  Stone,  for  example  (spoken  of  in 
the  preceding  chapter),  a  mass  of  dark  porphyry 
estimated  at  fifty  tons  weight,  was  carried  for  a 
distance  of  many  leagues  from  the  mountains  be- 
yond Lake  Chalco,  through  a  rough  country 
crossed  by  rivers  and  canals.  In  the  passage  its 
weight  broke  down  a  bridge  over  a  canal,  and  the 


9<5    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

heavy  rock  had  to  be  raised  from  the  water  be- 
neath. With  such  obstacles,  without  the  draft 
assistance  of  horses  or  cattle,  how  was  it  possible 
to  effect  such  a  transport  ?  Perhaps  the  mechan- 
ical skill  of  their  builders  and  engineers  had  con- 
trived some  tramway  or  other  machinery.  An 
English  traveler  had  a  curious  suggestion : 

Latrobe  accommodates  the  wonders  of  nature  and  art 
very  well  to  each  other,  by  suggesting  that  these  great 
masses  of  stone  were  transported  by  means  of  the  mastodon, 
whose  remains  are  occasionally  disinterred  in  the  Mexican 
Valley. 

The  Mexicans  wove  many  kinds  of  cotton 
cloth,  sometimes  using  as  a  dye  the  rich  crimson 
of  the  cochineal  insect.  They  made  a  more  ex- 
pensive fabric  by  interweaving  the  cotton  with 
the  fine  hair  of  rabbits  and  other  animals ;  some- 
times embroidering  with  pretty  designs  of  flowers 
and  birds,  etc.  The  special  art  of  the  Aztec 
weaver  was  in  feather-work,  \vhich  when  brought 
to  Europe  produced  the  highest  admiration : 

With  feathers  they  could  produce  all  the  effect  of  a  beau- 
tiful mosaic.  The  gorgeous  plumage  of  the  tropical  birds, 
especially  of  the  parrot  tribe,  afforded  every  variety  of 
color;  and  the  fine  down  of  the  humming-bird,  which 
reveled  in  swarms  among  the  honeysuckle  bowers  of  Mex- 
ico, supplied  them  with  soft  aerial  tints  that  gave  an  ex- 
quisite finish  to  the  picture.  The  feathers,  pasted  on  a 
fine  cotton  web,  were  wrought  into  dresses  for  the  wealthy, 
hangings  for  apartments,  and  ornaments  for  the  temples. 

When  some  of  the  Mexican  feather-work  was 
shown  at  Strasbourg:  "Never,"  says  one  ad- 
mirer, "did  I  behold  anything  so  exquisite  for 


MEXICO   BEFORE  THE  INVASION  97 

brilliancy  and  nice  gradation  of  color,  and  for 
beauty  of  design.  No  European  artist  could  have 
made  such  a  thing." 

Instead  of  shops  the  Aztecs  had  in  every  town 
a  market-place,  where  fairs  were  held  every  fifth 
day — i.  e.,  once  a  week.  Each  commodity  had  a 
particular  quarter,  and  the  traffic  was  partly  by 
barter,  and  partly  by  using  the  following  articles 
as  money:  bits  of  tin  shaped  like  an  Egyptian 
cross  (T),  bags  of  cacao  holding  a  specified 
number  of  grains,  and,  for  large  values,  quills  of 
gold-dust. 

The  married  women  among  the  Aztecs  were 
treated  kindly  and  respectfully  by  their  husbands. 
The  feminine  occupations  were  spinning  and  em- 
broidery, etc.,  as  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
while  listening  to  ballads  and  love  stories  related 
by  their  maidens  and  musicians  (Ramusio,  iii, 

305). 

In  banquets  and  other  social  entertainments  the 
women  had  an  equal  share  with  the  men.  Some- 
times the  festivities  were  on  a  large  scale,  with 
costly  preparations  and  numerous  attendants. 
The  Mexicans,  ancient  and  modern,  have  always 
been  passionately  fond  of  flowers,  and  on  great 
occasions  not  only  were  the  halls  and  courts 
strewed  and  adorned  in  profusion  with  blossoms 
of  every  hue  and  sweet  odor,  but  perfumes 
scented  every  room.  The  guests  as  they  sat  down 
found  ewers  of  water  before  them  and  cotton 
napkins,  since  washing  the  hands  both  before  and 
after  eating  was  a  national  habit  of  almost  re- 
ligious obligation.*  Modern  Europeans  believe 

*  Sahagun  (vi,  22)  quotes  the  precise  instructions  of  a  father 
to  his  son :  he  must  wash  face  and  hands  before  sitting  down 

7 


98    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

that  tobacco  was  introduced  from  America  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Isabella  and  Queen  Elizabeth,  but 
ages  before  that  period  the  Aztecs  at  their  ban- 
quets had  the  "fragrant  weed"  offered  to  the 
company,  "in  pipes,  mixed  up  with  aromatic  sub- 
stances, or  in  the  form  of  cigars,  inserted  in  tubes 
of  tortoise-shell  or  silver."  The  smoke  after  din- 
ner was  no  doubt  preliminary  to  the  siesta  or  nap 
of  "forty  winks."  It  is  not  known  if  the  Aztec 
ladies,  like  their  descendants  in  modern  Mexico, 
also  appreciated  the  yctl,  as  the  Mexicans  called 
"tobacco."  Our  word  came  from  the  natives  of 
Hayti,  one  of  the  islands  discovered  by  Columbus. 

The  tables  of  the  Aztecs  abounded  in  good 
food — various  dishes  of  meat,  especially  game, 
fowl,  and  fish.  The  turkey,  for  example,  was  in- 
troduced into  Europe  from  Mexico,  although 
stupidly  supposed  to  have  come  from  Asia.  The 
French  named  it  coq  d'lnde*  the  "Indian  cock," 
meaning  American,  but  the  ordinary  hearer  im- 
agined d'Inde  meant  from  Hindustan.  The  blun- 
der arose  from  that  misapplication  of  the  word 
"Indian,"  first  made  by  Columbus,  as  we  formerly 
explained. 

The  Aztec  cooks  dressed  their  viands  with  va- 
rious sauces  and  condiments,  the  more  solid  dishes 
being  followed  by  fruits  of  many  kinds,  as  well  as 
sweetmeats  and  pastry.  Chafing-dishes  even  were 
used.  Besides  the  varieties  of  beautiful  flowers 

to  table,  and  must  not  leave  till  he  has  repeated  the  operation 
and  cleansed  his  teeth. 

*The  Spanish  named  this  handsome  bird  gallofavo  (La.1.  pavo, 
the  "peacock").  The  wild  turkey  is  larger  and  more  beauti- 
ful than  the  tame,  and  therefore  Benjamin  Franklin,  when 
speaking  sarcastically  of  the  "  American  Eagle,"  insisted  that 
the  wild  turkey  was  the  proper  national  emblem. 


MEXICO   BEFORE  THE  INVASION  99 

which  adorned  the  table  there  were  sculptured 
vases  of  silver  and  sometimes  gold.  At  table 

the  favorite  beverage  was  the  chocolatl  flavored  with  vanilla 
and  different  spices.  The  fermented  juice  of  the  maguey, 
with  a  mixture  of  sweets  and  acids,  supplied  also  various 
agreeable  drinks,  of  different  degrees  of  strength. 

When  the  young  Mexicans  of  both  sexes 
amused  themselves  with  dances,  the  older  people 
kept  their  seats  in  order  to  enjoy  their  pulque  and 
gossip,  or  listen  to  the  discourse  of  some  guest  of 
importance.  The  music  which  accompanied  the 
dances  was  frequently  soft  and  rather  plaintive. 

The  early  Mexicans  included  the  Tezcucans  as 
well  as  the  Aztecs  proper ;  and  since  their  capitals 
were  on  the  same  lake  and  both  races  were  closely 
akin,  we  may  devote  some  space  to  these  Alco- 
huans  or  eastern  Aztecs.  Their  civilization  was 
superior  to  that  of  the  western  Aztecs  in  some 
respects,  and  Nezahual-coyotl,  their  greatest 
prince,  formed  alliance  with  the  western  state, 
and  then  remodeled  the  various  departments  of 
his  government.  He  had  a  council  of  war,  an- 
other of  finance,  and  a  third  of  justice. 

A  remarkable  institution,  under  King  Neza- 
hual-coyotl, was  the  "Council  of  Music,"  intended 
to  promote  the  study  of  science  and  the  practise 
of  art. 

Tezcuco,  in  fact,  became  the  nursery  not  only 
of  such  sciences  as  could  be  compassed  by  the 
scholarship  of  the  period,  but  of  various  useful 
and  ornamental  arts.  "Its  historians,  orators, 
and  poets  were  celebrated  throughout  the  coun- 
try. .  .  .  Its  idiom,  more  polished  than  the 
Mexican,  continued  long  after  the  conquest  to  be 


loo     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

that  in  which  the  best  productions  of  the  native 
races  were  composed.  Tezcuco  was  the  Athens 
of  the  Western  World.  .  .  .  Among  the  most 
illustrious  of  her  bards  was  their  king  himself." 
A  Spanish  writer  adds  that  it  was  to  the  eastern 
Aztecs  that  noblemen  sent  their  sons  "to  study 
poetry,  moral  philosophy,  the  heathen  theology, 
astronomy,  medicine,  and  history." 

The  most  remarkable  problem  connected  with 
ancient  Mexico  is  how  to  reconcile  the  general 


Ancient  Bridge  near  Tezcuco. 

refinement  and  civilization  with  the  sacrifices  of 
human  victims.  There  was  no  town  or  city  but 
had  its  temples  in  public  places,  with  stairs  visibly 
leading  up  to  the  sacrificial  stone,  ever  standing 
ready  before  some  hideous  idol  or  other — as  al- 
ready described. 

In  all  countries  there  have  been  public  spec- 
tacles of  bloodshed,  not  only  as  in  the  gladiators 
in  the  ancient  circus — 

butchered  to  make  a  Roman  holiday, 
or  the  tournays  of  the  middle  ages,  but  in  the 


MEXICO  BEFORE  THE  INVASION          IOI 

prize-ring  fights  and  public  executions  by  ax  or 
guillotine,  of  the  age  that  is  just  passing  away. 
The  thousands  who  perished  for  religious  ideas 
by  means  of  the  Holy  Roman  Inquisition  should 
not  be  overlooked  by  the  Spanish  writers  who 
are  so  indignant  that  Montezuma  and  his  priests 
sacrificed  tens  of  thousands  under  the  claims  of 
a  heathen  religion.  The  very  day  on  which  we 
write  these  words,  August  i8th,  is  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  last  sentence  for  beheading  passed  by 
our  House  of  Lords.  By  that  sentence  three 
Scottish  "Jacobites"  passed  under  the  ax  on 
Tower  Hill,  where  their  remains  still  rest  in  a 
chapel  hard  by.  So  lately  as  1873,  the  Shah  of 
Persia,  when  resident  as  a  visitor  in  Buckingham 
Palace,  was  amazed  to  find  that  the  laws  of 
Great  Britain  prevented  him  from  depriving  five 
of  his  courtiers  of  their  lives.  They  had  just 
been  found  guilty  of  some  paltry  infringement  of 
Persian  etiquette.  During  the  last  generation 
or  the  previous  one,  both  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, the  country  schoolmaster  on  a  certain  day 
had  the  schoolroom  cleared  so  that  the  children 
and  their  friends  should  enjoy  the  treat  of  seeing 
all  the  game-cocks  of  the  parish  bleeding  on  the 
floor  one  after  another,  being  either  struck  by  a 
spur  to  the  brain,  or  else  wounded  to  a  painful 
death.  When  James  Boswell  and  others  regularly 
attended  the  spectacles  of  Tyburn  and  sometimes 
cheered  the  wretched  victim  if  he  ''died  game," 
the  philosopher  will  not  wonder  at  the  populace 
of  some  city  of  ancient  Mexico  crowding  round 
the  great  temple  and  greedily  watching  the 
bloody  sacrifice  done  with  full  sanction  of  the 
priesthood  and  the  king. 


102     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

The  primitive  religions  were  derived  from  sun- 
worship,  and  as  fire  is  the  nearest  representative 
of  the  sun,  it  seemed  essential  to  burn  the  victim 
offered  as  a  sacrifice.  At  Carthage,  the  great 
Phenician  colony,  children  were  cruelly  sacrificed 
by  fire  to  the  god  Melkarth  of  Tyre.  "Melkarth" 
being  simply  Melech  Kiriath  (i.  e.,  "King  of  the 
City"),  and  therefore  identical  with  the  "Mo- 
loch" or  "Molech"  of  the  Ammonites,  Moabites, 
and  Israelites.  In  the  earliest  prehistoric  age  the 
children  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Israel  were  ap- 
parently so  closely  akin  that  they  had  practically 
the  same  religion  and  worshiped  the  same  idols. 
The  tribal  god  was  originally  the  god  of  Syria 
or  Canaan.  In  more  than  a  dozen  places  of  the 
Old  Testament  we  find  the  Hebrews  accused  of 
burning  their  children  or  passing  them  through 
the  fire  to  the  sun-god,  but  the  ancient  Mexicans 
did  not  burn  their  victims,  and  in  no  case  were  the 
victims  their  own  children.  The  victims  were  cap- 
tives taken  in  war,  or  persons  convicted  of  crime ; 
and  thus  the  Mexicans  were  in  atrocity  far  sur- 
passed by  those  races  akin  to  the  Hebrews  who 
are  much  denounced  by  the  sacred  writers,  e.  g. : 

Josiah  .  .  .  defiled  Topheth  that  no  man  might  make 
his  son  or  his  daughter  to  pass  through  the  fire  to  Molech 
(2  Kings  xxiii,  10). 

They  have  built  also  the  high  places  to  burn  their  sons 
with  fire  for  burnt-offerings  (Jer.  xix,  5). 

Yea,  they  shed  innocent  blood,  even  the  blood  of  their 
sons  and  of  their  daughters,  whom  they  sacrificed  unto  the 
idols  of  Canaan  (Ps.  cvi,  37). 

That  a  father  should  offer  his  own  child  as  a 
sacrifice  to  the  sun-god  or  any  other,  would  to 


MEXICO   BEFORE  THE  INVASION          103 

the  mild  and  gentle  Aztec  be  too  dreadful  a  con- 
ception. It  is  the  enormous  number  who  were 
immolated  that  shocks  the  European  mind,  but 
to  the  populace  enjoying  the  spectacle  the  victims 
were  enemies  of  the  king  or  criminals  deserving 
execution. 

Perhaps  it  is  a  more  difficult  problem  to  explain 
how  so  civilized  a  community  as  the  Aztec  races 
undoubtedly  were  could  look  with  complacency 
upon  any  one  tasting  a  dish  composed  of  some 
part  of  the  captive  he  had  taken  in  battle.  It  is 
not  only  repulsive  as  an  idea,  but  seems  impos- 
sible. Yet  much  depends  on  the  point  of  view 
as  well  as  the  atmosphere.  According  to  archeol- 
ogists,  all  the  primeval  races  of  men  could  at  a 
pinch  feed  on  human  flesh,  but  after  many  genera- 
tions learned  to  do  better  without  it.  We  may 
have  simply  outgrown  the  craving,  till  at  last  we 
call  it  unnatural,  whereas  those  ancient  Mexicans, 
with  all  their  wealth  of  food,  had  refined  upon  it. 
Let  us  again  refer  to  the  Old  Testament : 

Thou  hast  taken  thy  sons  and  thy  daughters  and  these 
hast  thou  sacrificed  to  be  devoured  (Ezek.  xvi,  20). 

.  .  .  have  caused  their  sons  to  pass  for  them  through 
the  fire,  to  devour  them  (Ezek.  xxiii,  37). 

We  may  therefore  infer  that  to  the  early  races 
of  Canaan  (including  Israel),  as  well  as  to  the 
primeval  Aztecs,  it  was  a  privilege  and  religious 
custom  to  eat  part  of  any  sacrifice  that  had  been 
offered. 

There  can  be  little  doubt,  to  any  one  who  has 
studied  the  earliest  human  antiquities,  that  all 
races  indulged  in  cannibalism,  not  only  during 


104     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

that  enormously  remote  age  called  Paleolithic, 
but  in  comparatively  recent  though  still  prehis- 
toric times.  "This  is  clearly  proved  by  the  num- 
ber of  human  bones,  chiefly  of  women  and  young 
persons,  which  have  been  found  charred  by  fire 
and  split  open  for  extraction  of  the  marrow." 
Such  charred  bones  have  frequently  been  pre- 
served in  caves,  as  at  Chaleux  in  Belgium,  where 
in  some  instances  they  occurred  "in  such  numbers 
as  to  indicate  that  they  had  been  the  scene  of 
cannibal  feasts." 

The  survival  of  human  sacrifice  among  the 
Aztecs,  with  its  accompanying  traces  of  canni- 
balism, was  due  to  the  savagery  of  a  long  previous 
condition  of  their  Indian  race ;  just  as  in  the  Greek 
drama,  when  that  ancient  people  had  attained  a 
high  level  of  culture  and  refinement,  the  sacrifice 
of  a  human  life,  sometimes  a  princess  or  other  dis- 
tinguished heroine,  was  not  unfrequent.  We  re- 
member Polyxena,  the  virgin  daughter  of  Hecuba, 
whom  her  own  people  resolved  to  sacrifice  on  the 
tomb  of  Achilles ;  and  her  touching  bravery,  as 
she  requests  the  Greeks  not  to  bind  her,  being 
ashamed,  she  says,  "having  lived  a  princess  to 
die  a  slave."  A  better  known  example  is  Iphi- 
genia,  so  beloved  by  her  father,  King  Agamem- 
non, and  yet  given  up  by  him  a  victim  for  pur- 
poses of  state  and  religion. 

From  the  Greek  drama,  human  sacrifices  fre- 
quently passed  to  the  Roman ;  nor  does  such  a 
refined  critic  as  Horace  object  to  it,  but  only  sug- 
gests that  the  bloodshed  ought  to  be  perpetrated 
behind  the  scenes.  In  Seneca's  play,  Medea 
(quoted  in  our  Introduction),  that  rule  was 
grossly  violated,  since  the  children  have  their 


106     EXTINCT    CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

throats  cut  by  their  heroic  mother  in  full  view  of 
the  audience.  In  the  same  passage  (Ars  Poet., 
185,  1 86)  Horace  forbids  a  banquet  of  human 
flesh  being  prepared  before  the  eyes  of  the  public, 
as  had  been  done  in  a  play  written  by  Ennius,  the 
Roman  poet.  The  religious  sacrifice  of  human 
victims  by  the  "Druids"  or  priests  of  ancient  Gaul 
and  Britain  seems  exactly  parallel  to  the  whole- 
sale executions  on  the  Mexican  tcocallis,  since  the 
wretched  victims  whom  our  Celtic  ancestors 
packed  for  burning  into  those  huge  wicker 
images,  were  captives  taken  in  battle,  like  those 
stretched  for  slaughter  upon  the  Mexican  stone  of 
sacrifice. 

Human  sacrifice  was  so  common  in  civilized 
Rome  that  it  was  not  till  the  first  century  B.  c. 
that  a  law  was  passed  expressly  forbidding  it — 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxx,  3,  4). 


CHAPTER  VI 
ARRIVAL    OF    THE    SPANIARDS 

THE  "New  Birth"  of  the  wrorld,  which  charac- 
terized the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  had  an 
enormous  influence  upon  Spain.  Her  queen,  the 
"great  Catholic  Isabella,"  had,  by  assisting  Co- 
lumbus, done  much  in  the  great  discovery  of  the 
Western  World.  Spain  speedily  had  substantial 
reward  in  the  boundless  wealth  poured  into  her 
lap,  and  the  rich  colonies  added  to  her  dominion. 
Thus  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  new  consolidated  Spain,  formed  by  the  union 


ARRIVAL   OF  THE  SPANIARDS  107 

of  the  two  kingdoms,  Castile  and  Aragon,  became 
the  richest  and  greatest  of  all  the  European  states. 

The  Spanish  governors  in  the  West  Indies  be- 
ing ambitious  of  planting  new  colonies  in  the 
name  of  the  Spanish  King,  conquest  and  annexa- 
tion were  stimulated  in  all  directions.  When 
Cuba  and  Hayti  were  overrun  and  annexed  to 
Spain,  not  without  much  unjust  treatment  of  the 
simple  natives,  as  we  have  seen,  they  became 
centers  of  operation,  whence  expeditions  could  be 
sent  to  Trinidad  or  any  other  island,  to  Panama, 
to  Yucatan,  or  Florida,  or  any  other  part  of  the 
continent.  After  the  marvelous  experience  of 
Grijalva  in  Yucatan,  then  considered  an  island, 
and  his  report  that  its  inhabitants  were  quite  a 
civilized  community  compared  with  the  natives 
of  the  isles,  Velasquez,  the  Governor  of  Cuba, 
resolved  at  once  to  invade  the  new  country  for 
purposes  of  annexation  and  plunder. 

Velasquez  prepared  a  large  expedition  for  this 
adventure,  consisting  of  eleven  ships  with  more 
than  600  armed  men  on  board ;  and  after  much 
deliberation  chose  Fernando  Cortes  to  be  the 
commander.  Who  was  this  Cortes,  destined  by 
his  military  genius  and  unscrupulous  policy  to  be 
comparable  to  Hannibal  or  Julius  Caesar  among 
the  ancients,  and  to  Clive  or  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
among  the  moderns?  Velasquez  knew  him  well 
as  one  of  his  subordinates  in  the  cruel  conquest 
of  Cuba ;  before  that  Cortes  had  distinguished 
himself  in  Hayti  as  an  energetic  and  skilled  offi- 
cer. Of  an  impetuous  and  fiery  temper  which  he 
had  learned  to  keep  thoroughly  in  command,  he 
was  characterized  by  that  quality  possessed  by 
all  commanders  of  superior  genius,  the  "art  of 


lo8     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

gaining  the  confidence  and  governing  the  minds 
of  men."  As  a  youth  in  Spain  he  had  studied  for 
the  bar  at  the  University  of  Salamanca ;  and  in 
some  of  his  speeches  on  critical  occasions  one  can 
find  certain  traces  of  his  academical  training  in 
the  adroit  arguments  and  clever  appeals. 

Other  qualifications  as  an  officer  were  his  manly 
and  handsome  appearance,  his  affable  manners, 
combined  with  "extraordinary  address  in  all  mar- 
tial exercises,  and  a  constitution  of  such  vigor  as 
to  be  capable  of  enduring  any  fatigue." 

Cortes  on  reviewing  his  commission  from  the 
Governor,  Velasquez,  was  too  shrewd  not  to  be 
aware  of  the  importance  of  his  new  position.  The 
"Great  Admiral,"  with  reference  to  the  discovery 
of  the  New  World,  had  said :  "I  have  only  opened 
the  door  for  others  to  enter"  ;  and  Cortes  was  con- 
scious that  now  was  the  moment  for  that  entrance. 
Filled  with  unbounded  ambition  he  rose  to  the 
occasion. 

Velasquez  somewhat  hypocritically  pretended 
that  the  object  he  had  in  view  was  merely  barter 
with  the  natives  of  New  Spain — that  being  the 
name  given  by  Grijalva  to  Yucatan  and  the 
neighboring  country.  He  ordered  Cortes 

to  impress  on  the  natives  the  grandeur  and  goodness  of  his 
royal  master;  to  invite  them  to  give  in  their  allegiance  to 
him,  and  to  manifest  it  by  regaling  him  with  such  com- 
fortable presents  of  gold,  pearls,  and  precious  stones  as 
by  showing  their  own  good-will  would  secure  his  favor  and 
protection. 

Mustering  his  forces  for  the  new  expedition, 
Cortes  found  that  he  had  no  sailors,  553  soldiers, 
besides  200  Indians  of  the  island  ;  ten  heavy  guns, 


ARRIVAL   OF  THE   SPANIARDS  109 

four  lighter  ones,  called  falconets.  He  had  also 
sixteen  horses,  knowing  the  effect  of  even  a  small 
body  of  cavalry  in  dealing  with  savages.  On 
February  18,  1519,  Cortes  sailed  with  eleven  ves- 
sels for  the  coast  of  Yucatan. 

Landing  at  Tabasco,  where  Grijalva  had  found 
the  natives  friendly,  Cortes  found  that  the  Yuca- 
tans  had  resolved  to  oppose  him,  and  were  pres- 
ently assembled  in  great  numbers.  The  result  of 
the  fighting,  however,  was  naturally  a  foregone 
conclusion,  partly  on  account  of  "the  astonish- 
ment and  terror  excited  by  the  destructive  effect" 
of  the  European  firearms,  and  the  "monstrous 
apparition"  of  men  on  horseback.  Such  quad- 
rupeds they  had  never  seen  before,  and  they  con- 
cluded that  the  rider  with  his  horse  formed  one 
unaccountable  animal.  Gomara  and  other  chroni- 
clers tell  how  St.  James,  the  tutelar  saint  of  Spain, 
appeared  in  the  ranks  on  a  gray  horse,  and  led  the 
Christians  to  victory  over  the  heathen. 

An  especially  fortunate  thing  for  Cortes  was 
that  among  the  female  slaves  presented  after  this 
battle,  there  was  one  of  remarkable  intelligence, 
who  understood  both  the  Aztec  and  the  Mayan 
languages,  and  soon  learned  the  Spanish.  She 
proved  invaluable  to  Cortes  as  an  interpreter,  and 
afterward  had  a  share  in  all  his  campaigns.  She 
is  generally  called  Marina. 

If  the  Spanish  accounts  are  true,  stating  that 
the  native  army  consisted  of  five  squadrons  of 
8,000  men  each,  then  this  victory  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  on  record,  as  a  proof  of  the  value 
of  gunpowder  as  compared  with  primitive  bows 
and  arrows.  To  the  simple  Americans  the  ter- 
rible invaders  seemed  actually  to  wield  the  thun- 


no     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

der  and  the  lightning.  Next  day  Cortes  made  an 
arrangement  with  the  chiefs  ;  and  after  confidence 
was  restored,  asked  where  they  got  their  gold 
from.  They  pointed  to  the  high  grounds  on  the 
west,  and  said  Culhua,  meaning  Mexico. 

The  Palm  Sunday  being  at  hand,  the  conversion 
of  the  "heathen"  was  duly  celebrated  by  pompous 
and  solemn  ceremonial.  The  army  marched  in 
procession  with  the  priests  at  their  head,  accom- 
panied by  crowds  of  Indians  of  both  sexes,  till 
they  reached  the  principal  temple.  A  new  altar 
being  built,  the  image  of  the  presiding  deity  was 
taken  from  its  place  and  thrown  down,  to  make 
room  for  that  of  the  Virgin  carrying  the  infant 
Saviour. 

Cortes  now  learned  that  the  capital  of  the  Mex- 
ican Empire  was  on  the  mountain  plains  nearly 
seventy  leagues  inland  ;  and  that  the  ruler  was  the 
great  and  powerful  Montezuma. 

It  was  on  the  morning  of  Good  Friday  that 
Cortes  landed  on  the  site  of  Vera  Cruz,  which 
after  the  conquest  of  Mexico  speedily  grew  into 
a  flourishing  seaport,  becoming  the  commercial 
capital  of  New  Spain.  A  friendly  conference 
took  place  between  Cortes  and  Teuhtlile,  an  Aztec 
chief,  who  asked  from  what  country  the  strangers 
had  come  and  why  they  had  come. 

"I  am  a  servant,"  replied  Cortes,  "of  a  mighty 
monarch  beyond  the  seas,  who  rules  over  an  im- 
mense empire,  having  kings  and  princes  for  his 
vassals.  Since  my  master  has  heard  of  the  great- 
ness of  the  Mexican  Emperor  he  has  desired  me 
to  enter  into  communication  with  him,  and  has 
sent  me  as  envoy  to  wait  upon  Montezuma  with  a 
present  in  token  of  good-will,  and  with  a  message 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  in 

which  I  must  deliver  in  person.  When  can  I  be 
admitted  to  your  sovereign's  presence?" 

The  Aztec  chief  replied  with  an  air  of  dignity : 
"How  is  it  that  you  have  been  here  only  two  days, 
and  demand  to  see  the  Emperor?  If  there  is 
another  monarch  as  powerful  as  Montezuma,  I 
have  no  doubt  my  master  will  be  happy  to  inter- 
change courtesies." 

The  slaves  of  Teuhtlile  presented  to  Cortes 

ten  loads  of  fine  cotton,  several  mantles  of  that  curious 
feather-work  whose  rich  and  delicate  dyes  might  vie  with 
the  most  beautiful  painting,  and  a  wicker  basket  filled  with 
ornaments  of  wrought  gold,  all  calculated  to  inspire  the 
Spaniards  with  high  ideas  of  the  wealth  and  mechanical 
ingenuity  of  the  Mexicans. 

Having  duly  expressed  his  thanks,  Cortes  then 
laid  before  the  Aztec  chief  the  presents  intended 
for  Montezuma.  These  were  "an  armchair  richly 
carved  and  painted  ;  a  crimson  cap  bearing  a  gold 
medal  emblazoned  with  St.  George  and  the 
Dragon ;  collars,  bracelets,  and  other  ornaments 
of  cut-glass,  which,  in  a  country  where  glass  was 
unknown,  might  claim  to  have  the  value  of  real 
gems." 

During  the  interview  Teuhtlile  had  been  curi- 
ously observing  a  shining  gilt  helmet  worn  by  a 
soldier,  and  said  that  it  was  exactly  like  that  of 
Quetzalcoatl.  "Who  is  he?"  asked  Cortes. 
"Quetzalcoatl  is  the  god  about  whom  the  Aztecs 
have  the  prophecy  that  he  will  come  back  to  them 
across  the  sea."  Cortes  promised  to  send  the  hel- 
met to  Montezuma,  and  expressed  a  wish  that  it 
would  be  returned  filled  with  the  gold-dust  of  the 


112     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

Aztecs,  that  he  might  compare  it  with  the  Spanish 
gold-dust ! 

One  reporter  who  was  present  says : 

He  further  told  Governor  Teuhtlile  that  the  Spaniards 
were  troubled  with  a  disease  of  the  heart  for  which  gold 
was  a  specific  remedy! 

Another  incident  of  this  notable  interview  was 
that  one  of  the  Mexican  attendants  was  observed 
by  Cortes  to  be  scribbling  with  a  pencil.  It  was 
an  artist  sketching  the  appearance  of  the  stran- 
gers, their  dress,  arms,  and  attitude,  and  filling  in 
the  picture  with  touches  of  color.  Struck  with  the 
idea  of  being  thus  represented  to  the  Mexican 
monarch,  Cortes  ordered  the  cavalry  to  be  exer- 
cised on  the  beach  in  front  of  the  artists. 

The  bold  and  rapid  movements  of  the  troops,  .  .  .  the 
apparent  ease  with  which  they  managed  the  fiery  animals 
on  which  they  were  mounted,  the  glancing  of  their  weapons, 
and  the  shrill  cry  of  the  trumpet,  all  filled  the  spectators 
with  astonishment;  but  when  they  heard  the  thunders  of 
the  cannon,  which  Cortes  ordered  to  be  fired  at  the  same 
time,  and  witnessed  the  volumes  of  smoke  and  flame  issuing 
from  these  terrible  engines,  and  the  rushing  sound  of  the 
balls,  as  they  dashed  through  the  trees  of  the  neighboring 
forest,  shivering  their  branches  into  fragments,  they  were 
filled  with  consternation  and  wonder,  from  which  the  Aztec 
chief  himself  was  not  wholly  free. 

This  was  all  faithfully  copied  by  the  picture- 
writers,  so  far  as  their  art  went,  in  sketching  and 
vivid  coloring.  They  also  recorded  the  ships  of 
the  strangers — "the  water-houses,"  as  they  were 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  113 

named — whose  dark  hulls  and  snow-white  sails 
were  swinging  at  anchor  in  the  bay. 

Meantime  what  had  Montezuma  been  doing, 
the  sad-faced  *  and  haughty  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
land  of  the  Aztecs  and  the  Tezcucans?  At  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  he  had  as  a  skilful  general 
led  his  armies  as  far  as  Honduras  and  Nicaragua, 
extending  the  limits  of  the  empire,  so  that  it  had 
now  reached  the  maximum. 

Tezcuco,  the  sister  state  to  Mexico,  had  latterly 
shown  hostility  to  Montezuma,  and  still  more 
formidable  was  the  republic  of  Tlascala,  lying 
between  his  capital  and  the  coast.  Prodigies  and 
prophecies  now  began  to  affect  all  classes  of  the 
population  in  the  Mexican  Valley.  Everybody 
spoke  of  the  return  from  over  the  sea  of  the  popu- 
lar god  Quetzalcoatl,  the  fair-skinned  and  long- 
haired (p.  93).  A  generation  had  already  elapsed 
since  the  first  rumors  that  white  men  in  great 
mysterious  vessels,  bearing  in  their  hands  the 
thimder  and  lightning,  were  seizing  the  islands 
and  must  soon  seize  the  mainland. 

No  wonder  that  Montezuma,  stern,  tyrannical, 
and  disappointed,  should  be  dismayed  at  the  news 
of  Grijalva's  landing,  and  still  more  so  when  hear- 
ing of  the  fleet  and  army  -of  Cortes,  and  seeing 
their  horsemen  pictured  by  his  artists — the  whole 
accompanied  by  exaggerated  accounts  of  the  guns 
and  cannon  able  to  produce  thunder  and  light- 
ning. After  holding  a  council,  Montezuma  re- 
solved to  send  an  embassy  to  Cortes,  presenting 
him  with  a  present  which  should  reflect  the  in- 
comparable grandeur  and  resources  of  Mexico, 

*  The  name  Montezuma  means  "sad  or  severe  man,"  a  title 
suited  to  his  features,  though  not  to  his  mild  character. 
8 


H4     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

and  at  the  same  time  forbidding  an  approach  to 
the  capital. 

The  governor  Teuhtlile,  on  this  second  em- 
bassy, was  accompanied  by  two  Aztec  nobles  and 
loo  slaves,  bearing  the  present  from  Montezuma 
to  Cortes.  As  they  entered  the  pavilion  of  the 
Spanish  general  the  air  was  filled  with  clouds  of 
incense  which  rose  from  censers  carried  by  some 
attendants. 

Some  delicately  wrought  mats  were  then  unrolled,  and 
on  them  the  slaves  displayed  the  various  articles,  .  .  . 
shields,  helmets,  cuirasses,  embossed  with  plates  and  orna- 
ments of  pure  gold;  collars  and  bracelets  of  the  same 
metal,  sandals,  fans,  and  crests  of  variegated  feathers,  in- 
termingled with  gold  and  silver  thread,  and  sprinkled  with 
pearls  and  precious  stones;  imitations  of  birds  and  ani- 
mals in  wrought  and  cast  gold  and  silver,  of  exquisite  work- 
manship; curtains,  coverlets,  and  robes  of  cotton,  fine  as 
silk,  of  rich  and  various  dyes,  interwoven  with  feather-work 
that  rivaled  the  delicacy  of  painting.  .  .  .  The  things 
which  excited  most  admiration  were  two  circular  plates  of 
gold  and  silver,  as  "large  as  carriage-wheels";  one  repre- 
senting the  sun  was  richly  carved  with  plants  and  animals. 
It  was  thirty  palms  in  circumference,  and  was  worth  about 
£52,500  sterling.* 

Cortes  was  interested  in  seeing  the  soldier's 
helmet  brought  back  to  him  full  to  the  brim  with 
grains  of  gold.  The  courteous  message  from 
Montezuma,  however,  did  not  please  him  much.- 
Montezuma  excused  himself  from  having  a  per- 
sonal interview  by  "the  distance  being  too  great, 

*  Robertson,  the  historian,  gives  ^5,000;  but  Prescott 
reckons  a. peso  de  oro  at  £2  las.  6d.;  whence  the  20,000  of  the 
text  gives  20,000  x  2%  =  2,500  x  2T  =^"52,500. 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  US 

and  the  journey  beset  with  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers from  formidable  enemies.  .  .  .  All  that 
could  be  done,  therefore,  was  for  the  strangers  to 
return  to  their  own  land." 

Soon  after  Cortes,  by  a  species  of  statecraft, 
formed  a  new  municipality,  thus  transforming  his 
camp  into  a  civil  community.  The  name  of  the 
new  city  was  Villa  Rica  de  Vera  Cruz,  i.  e.,  "the 
Rich  Town  of  the  True  Cross."  Once  the  munici- 
pality was  formed,  Cortes  resigned  before  them 
his  office  of  captain-general,  and  thus  became  free 
from  the  authority  of  Velasquez.  The  city  council 
at  once  chose  Cortes  to  be  captain-general  and 
chief  justice  of  the  colony.  He  could  now  go 
forward  unchecked  by  any  superior  except  the 
Crown. 

It  was  a  desperate  undertaking  to  climb  with 
an  army  from  the  hot  region  of  this  flat  coast 
through  the  varied  succession  of  "slopes"  which 
form  the  temperate  region,  and  at  last,  on  the  high 
table-land,  obtain  entrance  upon  the  great  en- 
closed valley  of  Mexico.  Cortes  found  that  an 
essential  preliminary  was  to  gain  the  friendship 
of  the  Totonacs,  a  nation  tributary  to  Montezuma. 
Their  subjection  to  the  Aztecs  he  had  already 
verified,  since  one  day  when  holding  a  conference 
with  the  Totonac  leaders  and  a  neighboring 
cazique  (i.  e.,  "prince"),  Cortes  saw  five  men  of 
haughty  appearance  enter  the  market-place,  fol- 
lowed by  several  attendants,  and  at  once  receive 
the  politest  attention  from  the  Totonacs. 

Cortes  asked  Marina,  his  slave  interpreter,  who 
or  what  they  were.  "They  are  Aztec  nobles," 
she  replied,  "sent  by  Montezuma  to  receive  trib- 
ute." Presently  the  Totonac  chiefs  came  to  Cortes 


116     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

with  looks  of  dire  dismay,  to  inform  him  of  the 
great  Emperor's  resentment  at  the  entertainment 
•offered  to  the  Spaniards,  and  demanding  in  ex- 
piation twenty  young  men  and  women  for  sacri- 
fice to  the  Aztec  gods. 

Cortes,  with  every  look  of  indignation,  insisted 
that  the  Totonacs  should  not  only  refuse  to  com- 
ply, but  should  seize  the  Aztec  messengers  and 
hold  them  strictly  confined  in  prison.  Unscrupu- 
lous to  gain  his  ends,  Cortes  by  lies  and  cunning 
•duplicity  managed  to  set  the  Mexican  nobles  free, 
dismissing  them  with  a  friendly  message  to  Mon- 
tezuma,  while  at  the  same  time  securing  the  confi- 
dence of  the  simple-minded  Totonacs,  urging 
them  to  join  the  Spaniards  and  make  a  bold  effort 
to  regain  their  independence.  Some  thought  that 
Cortes  was  re?lly  the  kindly  divinity  Quetzal- 
coatl.  promised  by  the  prophets  to  bring  freedom 
and  happiness. 

As  an  instance  of  the  religious  enthusiasm  of 
the  Spanish  invaders,  we  may  give  the  account 
of  the  "conversion"  of  Zempoalla,  a  city  in  the 
Totonac  district.  When  Cortes  pressed  upon  the 
cazique  of  Zempoalla  that  his  mission  was  to  turn 
the  Indians  from  the  abominations  of  their  present 
religion,  that  prince  replied  that  he  could  not  ac- 
cept what  the  Spanish  priests  had  told  him  about 
the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  Universe  ;  especially 
that  he  ever  stooped  to  become  a  mere  man,  weak 
and  poor,  so  as  to  suffer  voluntarily  persecution' 
and  even  death  at  the  hands  of  some  of  his  own 
creatures.  The  cazique  added  that  he  "would  re- 
sist any  violence  offered  to  his  gods,  who  would, 
indeed,  avenge  the  act  themselves  by  the  instant 
destruction  of  their  enemies." 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  u? 

Cortes  and  his  men  seized  the  opportunity. 
There  is  no  doubt  that,  after  witnessing  some  of 
the  barbarous  sacrifices  of  human  victims  fol- 
lowed by  cannibal  feasts,  their  souls  had  naturally 
been  sickened.  They  now  proceeded  to  force  the 
work  of  conversion  as  soon  as  Cortes  had  ap- 
pealed to  them  and  declared  that  "God  and  the 
holy  saints  would  never  favor  their  enterprise,  if 
such  atrocities  were  allowed ;  and  that  for  his 
own  part,  he  was  resolved  the  Indian  idols  should 
be  demolished  that  very  hour  if  it  cost  him  his 
life. 

"Scarcely  waiting  for  his  commands  the  Span- 
iards moved  toward  one  of  the  principal  teocallis, 
or  temples,  which  rose  high  on  a  pyramidal  foun- 
dation with  a  steep  ascent  of  stone  steps  in  the 
middle.  The  cazique,  divining  their  purpose, 
instantly  called  his  men  to  arms.  The  Indian  war- 
riors gathered  from  all  quarters,  with  shrill  cries 
and  clashing  of  weapons,  while  the  priests,  in 
their  dark  cotton  robes,  with  disheveled  tresses 
matted  with  blood,  rushed  frantic  among  the  na- 
tives, calling  on  them  to  protect  their  gods  from 
violation !  All  was  now  confusion  and  tumult. 
.  .  .  Cortes  took  his  usual  prompt  measures. 
Causing  the  cazique  and  some  of  the  principal  citi- 
zens and  priests  to  be  arrested,  he  commanded 
them  to  quiet  the  people,  declaring  that  if  a  single 
arrow  was  shot  against  a  Spaniard,  it  should  cost 
every  one  of  them  his  life.  .  .  .  The  cazique  cov- 
ered his  face  with  his  hands,  exclaiming  that  the 
gods  would  avenge  their  own  wrongs. 

"The  Christians  were  not  slow  in  availing  them- 
selves of  his  tacit  acquiescence.  Fifty  soldiers,  at 
a  signal  from  their  general,  sprang  up  the  great 


Il8     EXTINCT   CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE   WEST 

stairway  of  the  temple,  entered  the  building  on 
the  summit,  the  walls  of  which  were  black  with 
human  gore,  and  dragged  the  huge  wooden  idols 
to  the  edge  of  the  terrace.  Their  fantastic  forms 
and  features,  conveying  a  symbolic  meaning 
which  was  lost  on  the  Spaniards,  seemed  to  their 
eyes  only  the  hideous  lineaments  of  Satan.  With 
great  alacrity  they  rolled  the  colossal  monsters 
down  the  steps  of  the  pyramid,  amid  the  tri- 
umphant shouts  of  their  own  companions  and  the 
groans  and  lamentations  of  the  natives.  They 
then  consummated  the  whole  by  burning  them  in 
the  presence  of  the  assembled  multitude." 

After  the  temple  had  been  cleansed  from 
every  trace  of  the  idol-worship  and  its  horrors, 
a  new  altar  was  raised,  surmounted  by  a  lofty 
cross,  and  hung  with  garlands  of  roses.  A  reac- 
tion having  now  set  in  among  the  Indians,  many 
were  willing1  to  become  Christians,  and  some  of 
the  Aztec  priests  even  joined  in  a  procession  to 
signify  their  conversion,  wearing  white  robes  in- 
stead of  their  former  dark  mantles,  and  carry- 
ing lighted  candles  in  their  hands,  "while  an 
image  of  the  Virgin  half  smothered  under  the 
weight  of  flowers  was  borne  aloft,  and,  as  the 
procession  climbed  the  steps  of  the  temple,  was 
deposited  above  the  altar.  .  .  .  The  impressive 
character  of  the  ceremony  and  the  passionate 
eloquence  of  the  good  priest  touched  the  feel- , 
ings  of  the  motley  audience,  until  Indians  as  well 
as  Spaniards,  if  we  may  trust  the  chronicler, 
were  melted  into  tears  and  audible  sobs." 

Before  finally  marching  westward  toward  the 
temperate  "slopes"  of  the  mountains,  Cortes  had 
another  opportunity  of  proving  his  generalship 


ARRIVAL   OF  THE   SPANIARDS  "9 

and  prompt  resource  at  a  critical  moment.  When 
Agathocles,  the  autocratic  ruler  of  Syracuse, 
sailed  over  to  defeat  the  Carthaginians,  the  first 
thing  he  did  on  landing  in  Africa  was  to  burn  his 
ships,  that  his  soldiers  might  have  no  opportunity 
of  retreat,  and  no  hope  but  in  victory.  Cortes 
now  acted  on  exactly  the  same  principle. 

After  discovering  that  a  number  of  his  soldiers 
had  formed  a  conspiracy  to  seize  one  of  the  ships 
and  sail  to  Cuba,  Cortes,  on  conviction,  punished 
two  of  the  ringleaders  with  death.  Soon  after, 
he  formed  the  extraordinary  resolution  of  de- 
stroying his  ships  without  the  knowledge  of  his 
army. 

The  five  worst  ships  were  first  ordered  to  be 
dismantled  ;  and,  soon  after,  to  be  sunk.  When 
the  rest  were  inspected,  four  of  them  were  con- 
demned in  the  same  manner. 

When  the  news  reached  Zempoalla,  the  army 
were  excited  almost  to  open  mutiny.  Cortes, 
however,  was  perfectly  cool.  Addressing  the 
army  collectively,  he  assured  them  that  the  ships 
were  not  fit  for  service,  as  had  been  shown  by 
due  inspection.  "There  is  one  important  advan- 
tage gained  to  the  army,  viz.,  the  addition  of  a 
hundred  able-bodied  recruits  who  were  necessary 
to  man  the  lost  ships.  Besides  all  that,  of  what 
use  could  ships  be  to  us  in  the  present  expedition  ? 
As  for  me,  I  will  remain  here  even  without  a 
comrade.  As  for  those  who  shrink  from  the  dan- 
gers of  our  glorious  enterprise,  let  them  go  back, 
in  God's  name  !  Let  them  go  home,  since  there  is 
still  one  vessel  left ;  let  them  go  on  board  and 
return  to  Cuba.  They  can  tell  how  they  deserted 
their  commander  and  their  comrades,  and  pa- 


120     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

tiently  wait  till  they  see  us  return  loaded  with  the 
spoils  of  the  Aztecs." 

Persuasion  is  the  end  of  true  oratory.  The  re- 
ply of  the  army  to  Cortes  was  the  unanimous 
shout  "To  Mexico !  To  Mexico  1" 

After  beginning  the  gradual  ascent  in  their 
march  toward  the  table-land  of  Mexico,  the  first 
place  noted  by  the  invaders  was  Jalapa,  a  town 
which  still  retains  its  Aztec  name,  known  to  all 
the  world  by  the  well-known  drug  grown  there. 
It  is  a  favorite  resort  of  the  wealthier  residents 
in  Vera  Cruz,  and  that  too  tropical  plain  which 
Cortes  had  just  left.  The  mighty  mountain 
Orizaba,  one  of  the  guardians  of  the  Mexican 
Valley,  is  now  full  in  sight,  towering  in  solitary 
grandeur  with  its  robe  of  snow. 

At  last  they  reached  a  town  so  populous  that 
there  were  thirteen  Aztec  temples  with  the  usual 
sacrificial  stone  for  human  victims  before  each 
idol.  In  the  suburbs  the  Spanish  were  shocked 
"by  a  gathering  of  human  skulls,  many  thousand 
in  number.  This  appalling  reminder  of  the  un- 
speakable sacrifices  soon  became  a  familiar  sight 
as  they  marched  through  that  country. 

Cortes  asked  the  cazique  if  he  were  subject  to 
Montezuma.  "Who  is  there,"  replied  the  local 
prince,  "that  is  not  tributary  to  that  Emperor?" 
"I  am  not,"  said  the  stranger  general.  Cortes 
assured  him  that  the  monarch  whom  the  Span- 
iards served  had  princes  as  vassals,  who  were 
more  powerful  than  the  Aztec  ruler.  The  cazique 
said: 

Montezuma  could  muster  thirty  great  vassals,  each  mas- 
ter of  100,000  men.     His  revenues  were  incalculable,  since 


ARRIVAL   OF  THE  SPANIARDS  121 

every  subject,  however  poor,  paid  something.  .  .  .  More 
than  20,000  victims,  the  fruit  of  his  wars,  were  annually 
sacrificed  on  the  altars  of  his  gods  !  His  capital  stood  on 
a  lake,  in  the  center  of  a  spacious  valley.  .  .  .  The  ap- 
proach to  the  city  was  by  means  of  causeways  several  miles 
long ;  and  when  the  connecting  bridges  were  raised  all 
communication  with  the  country  was  cut  off. 

The  Indians  showed  the  greatest  curiosity  re- 
specting the  dresses,  weapons,  horses,  and  dogs 
of  their  strange  visitors.  The  country  all  around 
was  then  well  wooded  and  full  of  villages  and 
towns,  which  disappeared  after  the  conquest. 
Humboldt  remarked,  when  he  traveled  there, 
that  the  whole  district  had,  "at  the  time  of  the  ar- 
rival of  the  Spanish,  been  more  inhabited  and 
better  cultivated,  and  that  in  proportion  as  they 
got  higher  up  near  the  table-land,  they  found  the 
villages  more  frequent,  the  fields  more  sub- 
divided, and  the  people  more  law-abiding." 

Before  entering  upon  the  table-land,  Cortes  re- 
solved to  visit  the  republic  of  Tlascala,  which  was 
noted  for  having  retained  its  independence  in 
spite  of  the  Aztecs.  After  sending  an  embassy, 
consisting  of  the  four  chief  Zempoallas,  who  had 
accompanied  the  army,  he  set  out  toward  Tlas- 
cala, lingering  as  they  proceeded,  so  that  his 
ambassadors  should  have  time  to  return.  While 
wondering  at  the  delay,  they  suddenly  reached  a 
remarkable  fortification  which  marked  the  limits 
of  the  republic,  and  acted  as  a  barrier  against  the 
Mexican  invasions.  Prescott  thus  describes  it : 

A  stone  wall  nine  feet  in  height  and  twenty  in  thickness, 
with  a  parapet  a  foot  and  a  half  broad  raised  on  the  sum- 
mit for  the  protection  of  those  who  defended  it.  It  had 


122     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

only  one  opening  in  the  center,  made  by  two  semicircular 
lines  of  wall  overlapping  each  other  for  the  space  of  forty 
paces,  and  affording  a  passageway  between,  ten  paces 
wide,  so  contrived,  therefore,  as  to  be  perfectly  commanded 
by  the  inner  wall.  This  fortification,  which  extended 
more  than  two  leagues,  rested  at  either  end  on  the  bold 
natural  buttresses  formed  by  the  sierra.  The  work  was 
built  of  immense  blocks  of  stone  nicely  laid  together  with- 
out cement,  and  the  remains  still  existing,  among  which 
are  rocks  of  the  whole  breadth  of  the  rampart,  fully  at- 
test its  solidity  and  size. 

Who  were  the  people  of  this  stout-hearted  re- 
public? The  Tlascalans  were  a  kindred  tribe  to 
the  Aztecs,  and  after  coming  to  the  Mexican 
Valley,  toward  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
had  settled  for  many  years  on  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  Tezcuco.  Afterward  they  migrated  to 
that  district  of  fruitful  valleys  where  Cortes 
found  them ;  Tlascala,  meaning  "land  of  bread." 
They  then,  as  a  nation,  consisted  of  four  separate 
states,  considerably  civilized,  and  always  able  to 
protect  their  confederacy  against  foreign  inva- 
sion. Their  arts,  religion,  and  architecture  were 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Aztecs  and  Tezcucans. 

More  than  once  had  the  Aztecs  attempted  to 
bring  the  little  republic  into  subjection,  but  in 
vain.  In  one  campaign  Montezuma  had  lost  a 
favorite,  besides  having  his  army  defeated;  and 
though  a  much  more  formidable  invasion  fol- 
lowed, "the  bold  mountaineers  withdrew  into  the 
recesses  of  their  hills,  and  coolly  watching  their 
opportunity,  rushed  like  a  torrent  on  the  inva- 
ders, and  drove  them  back  with  dreadful  slaugh- 
ter from  their  territories." 

The   Tlascalans  had  of  course   heard  of  the 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  123 

redoubtable  Europeans  and  their  advance  upon 
Montezuma's  kingdom,  but  not  expecting  any 
visit  themselves,  they  were  in  doubt  about  the 
embassy  sent  by  Cortes,  and  the  council  had  not 
reached  a  decision  when  the  arrival  of  Cortes  was 
announced  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry.  Attacked  by 
a  body  of  several  thousand  Indians,  he  sent  back 
a  horseman  to  make  the  infantry  hurry  up  to  his 
assistance.  Two  of  the  horses  were  killed,  a  loss 
seriously  felt  by  Cortes ;  but  when  the  main  body 
had  discharged  a  volley  from  their  muskets  and 
crossbows,  so  astounded  were  the  Tlascalan 
Indians  that  they  stopped  fighting  and  withdrew 
from  the  field. 

Next  morning,  after  Cortes  had  given  careful 
instruction  to  his  army  (now  more  than  3,000  in 
number,  with  his  Indian  auxiliaries),  they  had 
not  marched  far  when  they  were  met  by  two  of 
the  Zempoallans,  who  had  been  sent  as  ambassa- 
dors. They  informed  Cortes  that,  as  captives, 
they  had  been  reserved  for  the  sacrificial  stone, 
but  had  succeeded  in  breaking  out  of  prison. 
They  also  said  that  forces  were  being  collected 
from  all  quarters  to  meet  the  Spaniards. 

At  the  first  encounter,  the  Indians,  after  some 
spirited  fighting,  retreated  in  order  to  draw  the 
Spanish  army  into  a  defile  impracticable  for  ar- 
tillery or  cavalry.  Pressing  forward  they  found, 
on  turning  an  abrupt  corner  of  the  glen,  that  an 
army  of  many  thousands  was  drawn  up  in  order, 
prepared  to  receive  them.  As  they  came  into 
view,  the  Tlascalans  set  up  a  piercing  war-cry, 
shrill  and  hideous,  accompanied  by  the  melan- 
choly beat  of  a  thousand  drums.  Cortes  spurred 
on  the  cavalry  to  force  a  passage  for  the  infantry, 


124     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

and  kept  exhorting  his  soldiers,  while  showing 
them  an  example  of  personal  daring.  "If  we 
fail  now,"  he  cried,  "the  Cross  of  Christ  can 
never  be  planted  in  this  land.  Forward,  com- 
rades !  when  was  it  ever  known  that  a  Castilian 
turned  his  back  on  a  foe  ?" 

With  desperate  efforts  the  soldiers  forced  a 
passage  through  the  Indian  columns,  and  then,  as 
soon  as  the  horse  opened  room  for  the  move- 
ments of  the  gunners,  the  terrible  "thunder  and 
lightning"  of  the  cannon  did  the  rest.  The  havoc 
caused  in  their  ranks,  combined  with  the  roar  and 
the  flash  of  gunpowder,  and  the  mangled  car- 
casses, filled  the  whole  of  the  barbarian  army 
with  horror  and  consternation.  Eight  leaders  of 
the  Tlascalan  army  having  fallen,  the  prince 
ordered  a  retreat. 

The  chief  of  the  Tlascalans,  Xicotencatl,  was 
no  ordinary  leader.  When  Cortes  wished  to 
press  on  to  the  capital,  he  sent  two  envoys  to  the 
Tlascalan  camp,  but  all  that  Xicotencatl  deigned 
to  reply  was 

that  the  Spaniards  might  pass  on  as  soon  as  they  chose  to 
Tlascala,  and  when  they  reached  it  their  flesh  would  be 
hewn  from  their  bodies  for  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  If  they 
preferred  to  remain  in  their  own  quarters,  he  would  pay 
them  a  visit  there  the  next  day. 

The  envoys  also  told  Cortes  that  the  chief  had 
now  collected  another  very  large  army,  five  bat- 
talions of  10,000  men  each.  There  was  evidently 
a  determination  to  try  the  fate  of  Tlascala  by  a 
pitched  battle  and  exterminate  the  bold  invaders. 

The  next  day,  September  5,  1519,  was  there- 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  125 

fore  a  critical  one  in  the  annals  of  Cortes.  He 
resolved  to  meet  the  Tlascalan  chief  in  the  field, 
after  directing  the  foot-soldiers  to  use  the  point 
of  their  swords  and  not  the  edge ;  the  horse  to 
charge  at  half  speed,  directing  their  lances  at  the 
eyes  of  their  enemies ;  the  gunners  and  cross- 
bowmen  to  support  each  other,  some  loading 
while  others  were  discharging  their  pieces. 

Before  Cortes  and  his  soldiers  had  marched 
a  mile  they  saw  the  immense  Tlascalan  army 
stretched  far  and  wide  over  a  vast  plain.  "Noth- 
ing could  be  more  picturesque  than  the  aspect  of 
these  Indian  battalions,  with  the  naked  bodies  of 
the  common  soldiers  gaudily  painted,  the  fantas- 
tic helmets  of  the  chiefs  bright  with  ornaments 
and  precious  stones,  and  the  glowing  panoplies 
of  feather-work.  .  .  . 

The  golden  glitterance  and  the  feather-mail 

More  gay  than  glittering  gold;  and  round  the  helm 

A  coronal  of  high  upstanding  plumes.  .  . 

.  With  war-songs  and  wild  music  they  came  on.* 

The  Tlascalan  warriors  had  attained  wonder- 
ful skill  in  throwing  the  javelin.  "One  species, 
with  a  thong  attached  to  it,  which  remained  in  the 
slinger's  hand,  that  he  might  recall  the  weapon, 
was  especially  dreaded  by  the  Spaniards."  Their 
various  weapons  were  pointed  with  bone  or  ob- 
sidian, and  sometimes  headed  with  copper. 

The  yell  or  scream  of  defiance  raised  by  these 
Indians  almost  drowned  the  volume  of  sound 
from  "the  wild  barbaric  minstrelsy  of  shell, 
atabal,  and  trumpet  with  which  they  proclaimed 

*Southey  (Madoc,  i,  7). 


126     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

their  triumphant  anticipations  of  victory  over  the 
paltry  forces  of  the  invaders." 

Advancing  under  a  thick  shower  of  arrows  and 
other  missiles,  the  Spanish  soldiers  at  a  certain 
distance  quickly  halted  and  drew  up  in  order, 
before  delivering  a  general  fire  along  the  whole 
line.  The  front  ranks  of  their  wild  opponents 
were  mowed  down  and  those  behind  were  "petri- 
fied with  dismay." 

But  for  the  accident  of  dissension  having 
arisen  between  the  chiefs  of  the  Tlascalans,  it  al- 
most seemed  as  if  nothing  could  have  saved 
Cortes  and  his  Spanish  army.  Before  the  battle, 
the  haughty  treatment  of  one  of  those  chiefs  by 
Xicotencatl,  the  cazique,  provoked  the  injured 
man  to  draw  off  all  his  contingent  during  the 
battle,  and  persuade  another  chief  to  do  the  same. 
With  his  forces  so  weakened,  the  cazique  was 
compelled  to  resign  the  field  to  the  Spaniards. 

Xicotencatl,  in  his  eagerness  for  revenge,  con- 
sulted some  of  the  Aztec  priests,  who  recom- 
mended a  night  attack  upon  Cortes's  camp  in 
order  to  take  his  army  by  surprise.  The  Tlas- 
calan,  therefore,  with  10,000  warriors,  inarched 
secretly  toward  the  Spanish  camp,  but  owing  to 
the  bright  moonlight  they  were  not  unseen  by 
the  vedettes.  Besides  that,  Cortes  had  accus- 
tomed his  army  to  sleep  with  their  arms  by  their 
side  and  the  horses  ready  saddled.  In  an  instant,' 
as  it  were,  the  whole  camp  were  on  the  alert  and 
under  arms.  The  Indians,  meanwhile,  were 
stealthily  advancing  to  the  silent  camp,  and,  "no 
sooner  had  they  reached  the  slope  of  the  rising 
ground  than  they  were  astounded  by  the  deep 
battle-cry  of  the  Spaniards,  followed  by  the  in- 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  127 

stantaneous  appearance  of  the  whole  army. 
Scarcely  awaiting  the  shock  of  their  enemy,  the 
panic-struck  barbarians  fled  rapidly  and  tumul- 
tuously  across  the  plain.  The  horse  easily  over- 
took the  fugitives,  riding  them  down,  and  cutting 
them  to  pieces  without  mercy."  Next  day  Cortes 
sent  new  ambassadors  to  the  Tlascalan  capital, 
accompanied  by  his  faithful  slave  interpreter, 
Marina.  They  found  the  cazique's  council  sad 
and  dejected,  every  gleam  of  hope  being  now 
extinguished. 

The  message  of  Cortes  still  promised  friend- 
ship and  pardon,  if  only  they  agreed  to  act  as 
allies.  If  the  present  offer  were  rejected,  "he 
would  visit  their  capital  as  a  conqueror,  raze 
every  house  to  the  ground,  and  put  every  inhab- 
itant to  the  sword."  On  hearing  this  ultimatum, 
the  council  chose  four  leading  chiefs  to  be  en- 
trusted with  a  mission  to  Cortes,  "assuring  him  of 
a  free  passage  through  the  country,  and  a  friendly 
reception  in  the  capital."  The  ambassadors,  on 
their  way  back  to  Cortes,  called  at  the  camp  of 
Xicotencatl,  and  were  there  detained  by  him. 
He  was  still  planning  against  the  terrible  in- 
vaders. 

Cortes,  in  the  meantime,  had  another  oppor- 
tunity of  showing  his  resource  and  presence  of 
mind.  Some  of  his  soldiers  had  shown  a  grum- 
bling discontent :  "The  idea  of  conquering  Mex- 
ico was  madness ;  if  they  had  encountered  such 
opposition  from  the  petty  republic,  what  might 
they  not  expect  from  the  great  Mexican  Empire  ? 
There  was  now  a  temporary  suspension  of  hos- 
tilities ;  should  they  not  avail  themselves  of  it  to 
retrace  their  steps  to  Vera  Cruz  ?"  To  this  Cortes 


128     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

listened  calmly  and  politely,  replying  that  "he  had 
told  them  at  the  outset  that  glory  was  to  be  won 
only  by  toil  and  danger ;  he  had  never  shrunk 
from  his  share  of  both.  To  go  back  now  was  im- 
possible. What  would  the  Tlascalans  say  ?  How 
would  the  Mexicans  exult  at  such  a  miserable  is- 
sue !  Instead  of  turning  your  eyes  toward  Cuba, 
fix  them  on  Mexico,  the  great  object  of  our  enter- 
prise." Many  other  soldiers  having  gathered 
round,  the  mutinous  party  took  courage  to  say 
that  "another  such  victory  as  the  last  would  be 
their  ruin ;  they  were  going  to  Mexico  only  to  be 
slaughtered."  With  some  impatience  Cortes 
gaily  quoted  a  soldiers'  song : 

Better  die  with  honor 
Than  live  in  long  disgrace! 

— a  sentiment  which  the  majority  of  the  audience 
naturally  cheered  to  the  echo,  while  the  malcon- 
tents slunk  away  to  their  quarters. 

The  next  event  was  the  arrival  of  some  Tlas- 
calans wearing  white  badges  as  an  indication  of 
peace.  They  brought  a  message,  they  said,  from 
Xicotencatl,  who  now  desired  an  arrangement 
with  Cortes,  and  would  soon  appear  in  person. 
Most  of  them  remained  in  the  camp,  where  they 
were  treated  kindly;  but  Marina,  with  her 
"woman's  wit,"  became  somewhat  suspicious  of 
them.  Perhaps  some  of  them,  forgetting  that 
she  knew  their  language,  let  drop  a  phrase  in 
talking  to  each  other,  which  awoke  her  distrust. 
She  told  Cortes  that  the  men  were  spies.  He 
had  them  arrested  and  examined  separately,  as- 
certaining in  that  way  that  they  were  sent  to 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  129 

obtain  secret  information  of  the  Spanish  camp, 
and  that,  in  fact,  Xicotencatl  was  mustering  his 
forces  to  make  another  determined  attack  on  the 
invading  army. 

To  show  the  fierceness  of  his  resentment  at 
such  treatment,  Cortes  ordered  the  fifty  spy  am- 
bassadors to  have  their  hands  hacked  off,  and 
sent  back  to  tell  their  lord  that  "the  Tlascalans 
might  come  by  day  or  night,  they  would  find  the 
Spaniards  ready  for  them."  The  sight  of  their 
mutilated  comrades  filled  the  Indian  camp  with 
dread  and  horror.  All  thoughts  of  resistance  to 
the  advance  of  Cortes  were  now  abandoned,  and 
not  long  after  the  arrival  of  Xicotencatl  himself 
was  announced,  attended  by  a  numerous  train. 
He  advanced  with  "the  firm  and  fearless  step  of 
one  who  was  coming  rather  to  bid  defiance  than 
to  sue  for  peace.  He  was  rather  above  the  middle 
size,  with  broad  shoulders  and  a  muscular  frame, 
intimating  great  activity  and  strength.  He  made 
the  usual  salutation  by  touching  the  ground  with 
his  hand  and  carrying  it  to  his  head."  He  threw 
no  blame  on  the  Tlascalan  senate,  but  assumed 
all  the  responsibility  of  the  war.  He  admitted 
that  the  Spanish  army  had  beaten  him,  but  hoped 
they  would  use  their  victory  with  moderation, 
and  not  trample  on  the  liberties  of  the  repub- 
lic. 

Cortes  admired  the  cazique's  lofty  spirit,  while 
pretending  to  rebuke  him  for  having  so  long  re- 
mained an  enemy.  "He  was  willing  to  bury  the 
past  in  oblivion,  and  to  receive  the  Tlascalans  as 
vassals  to  the  Emperor,  his  master." 

Before   the   entry   into  Tlascala,   the   capital, 
there  arrived  an  embassy  from  Montezuma,  who 
9 


EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

had  been  keenly  disappointed,  no  doubt,  that 
Cortes  had  not  only  not  been  defeated  by  the 
bravest  race  on  the  Mexican  table-land,  but  had 
formed  a  friendly  alliance  with  them. 

As  Cortes,  with  his  army,  approached  the  popu- 
lous city,  they  were  welcomed  by  great  crowds 
of  men  and  women  in  picturesque  dresses,  with 
nosegays  and  wreaths  of  flowers ;  priests  in  white 
robes  and  long  matted  tresses,  swinging  their 
burning  censers  of  incense.  The  anniversary  of 
this  entry  into  Tlascala,  September  23,  1519,  is 
still  celebrated  as  a  day  of  rejoicing. 

Cortes,  in  his  letter  to  the  Emperor,  King  of 
Spain,  compares  it  for  size  and  appearance  to 
Granada,  the  Moorish  capital.  Pottery  was  one 
of  the  industries  in  which  Tlascala  excelled.  The 
Tlascalan  was  chiefly  agricultural  in  his  habits ; 
his  honest  breast  glowed  with  the  patriotic  at- 
tachment to  the  soil,  which  is  the  fruit  of  its  dili- 
gent culture,  while  he  was  elevated  by  that  con- 
sciousness of  independence  which  is  the  natural 
birthright  of  a  child  of  the  mountains. 

Cholula,  capital  of  the  republic  of  that  name,  is 
six  leagues  north  of  Tlascala,  and  about  twenty 
southeast  of  Mexico.  In  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  the  table-land  of  Anahuac,  as  the  whole 
district  is  sometimes  termed,  this  city  was  large 
and  populous.  The  people  excelled  in  mechanical 
arts,  especially  metal-working,  cloth-weaving; 
and  a  delicate  kind  of  pottery.  Reference  has 
already  been  made  to  the  god  Quetzalcoatl,  in 
whose  honor  a  huge  pyramid  was  erected  here. 
From  the  farthest  parts  of  Anahuac  devotees 
thronged  to  Cholula,  just  as  the  Mohammedans 
to  Mecca. 


ARRIVAL   OF  THE   SPANIARDS  131 

The  Spaniards  found  the  people  of  Cholula 
superior  in  dress  and  looks  to  any  of  the  races 
they  had  seen.  The  higher  classes  "wore  fine 
embroidered  mantles  resembling  the  Moorish 
cloak  in  texture  and  fashion.  . .  .  They  showed  the 
same  delicate  taste  for  flowers  as  the  other  tribes 
of  the  plateau,  tossing  garlands  and  bunches 
among  the  soldiers.  .  .  .  The  Spaniards  were 
also  struck  with  the  cleanliness  of  the  city,  the 
regularity  of  the  streets,  the  solidity  of  the 
houses,  and  the  number  and  size  of  the  pyram- 
idal temples."  After  being  treated  with  kind- 
ness and  hospitality  for  several  days,  all  at  once 
the  scene  changed,  the  cause  being  the  arrival  of 
messengers  from  Montezuma.  At  the  same 
time  some  Tlascalans  told  Cortes  that  a  great 
sacrifice,  mostly  of  children,  had  been  offered  to 
propitiate  the  favor  of  the  gods. 

At  this  juncture,  Marina,  the  Indian  slave  in- 
terpreter, again  proved  to  be  the  "good  angel"  of 
Cortes.  She  had  become  very  friendly  with  the 
wife  of  one  of  the  Cholula  caziques,  who  gave 
her  a  hint  that  there  was  danger  in  staying  at  the 
house  of  any  Spaniard ;  and,  when  further 
pressed  by  Marina,  said  that  the  Spaniards  were 
to  be  slaughtered  when  marching  out  of  the  capi- 
tal. The  plot  had  originated  with  the  Aztec  Em- 
peror, and  20,000  Mexicans  were  already  quar- 
tered a  little  distance  out  of  town. 

In  this  most  critical  position,  Cortes  at  once 
decided  to  take  possession  of  the  great  square, 
placing  a  strong  guard  at  each  of  its  three  gates 
of  entrance.  The  rest  of  what  troops  he  had  in 
the  town,  he  posted  without  with  the  cannon,  to 
command  the  avenues.  He  had  already  sent 


132     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

orders  to  the  Tlascalan  chiefs  to  keep  their  sol- 
diers in  readiness  to  march,  at  a  given  signal, 
into  the  city  to  support  the  Spaniards.  Presently 
the  caziques  of  Cholula  arrived  with  a  larger 
body  of  levies  than  Cortes  had  demanded.  He 
at  once  charged  them  with  conspiring  against  the 
Spaniards  after  receiving  them  as  friends.  They 
were  so  amazed  at  his  discovery  of  their  perfidy 
that  they  confessed  everything,  laying  the  blame 
on  Montezuma.  "That  pretense,"  said  Cortes, 
assuming  a  look  of  fierce  indignation,  "is  no  justi- 
fication ;  I  shall  now  make  such  an  example  of 
you  for  your  treachery  that  the  report  of  it  will 
ring  throughout  the  wide  borders  of  Anahuac !" 
At  the  firing  of  a  harquebus,  the  fatal  signal, 
the  crowd  of  unsuspecting  Cholulans  were  mas- 
sacred as  they  stood,  almost  without  resistance. 
Meantime  the  other  Indians  without  the  square 
commenced  an  attack  on  the  Spaniards,  but  the 
heavy  guns  of  the  battery  played  upon  them  with 
murderous  effect,  and  cavalry  advanced  to  sup- 
port the  attack. 

The  steeds,  the  guns,  the  weapons  of  the  Spaniards,  were 
all  new  to  the  Cholulans.  Notwithstanding  the  novelty 
of  the  terrific  spectacle,  the  flash  of  arms  mingling  with  the 
deafening  roar  of  the  artillery,  the  desperate  Indians  pushed 
on  to  take  the  places  of  their  fallen  comrades. 

While  this  scene  of  bloodshed  was  progressing, 
the  Tlascalans,  as  arranged,  were  hastening  to 
the  assistance  of  their  Spanish  allies.  The  Cho- 
lulans, when  thus  attacked  in  rear  by  their  tradi- 
tional enemies,  speedily  gave  way,  and  tried  to 
save  themselves  in  the  great  temple  and  else- 


ARRIVAL  OF  THE  SPANIARDS  133 

where.  The  "Holy  City,"  as  it  was  called,  was 
converted  into  a  pandemonium  of  massacre.  In 
memory  of  the  signal  defeat  of  the  Cholulans,, 
Cortes  converted  the  chief  part  of  the  great 
temple  into  a  Christian  church. 

Envoys  again  arrived  from  Mexico  with  rich 
presents  and  a  message  vindicating  the  pusillani- 
mous Emperor  from  any  share  in  the  conspiracy 
against  Cortes.  Continuing  their  march,  the 
allied  army  of  Spaniards  and  Tlascalans  pro- 
ceeded till  they  reached  the  mountains  which 
separate  the  table-land  of  Puebla  from  that  of 
Mexico.  To  cross  this  range  they  followed  the 
route  which  passes  between  the  mighty  Popo- 
catepetl (i.  e.,  "the  smokin-g  mountain")  and 
another  called  the  "White  Woman"  from  its 
broad  robe  of  snow.  The  first  lies  about  forty 
miles  southeast  of  the  capital  to  which  their 
march  was  directed.  It  is  more  than  2,000  feet 
higher  than  Mont  Blanc,  and  has  two  principal 
craters,  one  of  which  is  about  i  ,000  feet  deep  and 
has  large  deposits  of  sulfur  which  are  regularly 
mined.  Popocatepetl  has  long  been  only  a  quies- 
cent volcano,  but  during  the  invasion  by  Cortes 
it  was  often  burning,  especially  at  the  time  of 
the  siege  of  Tlascala.  That  was  naturally  inter- 
preted all  over  the  district  of  Anahuac  to  be  a  bad 
omen,  associated  with  the  landing  and  approach 
of  the  Spaniards.  Cortes  insisted  on  several  de- 
scents being  made  into  the  great  crater  till  suffi- 
cient sulfur  was  collected  to  supply  gunpowder  to 
his  army.  The  icy  cold  winds,  varied  by  storms 
of  snow  and  sleet,  were  more  trying  to  the  Euro- 
peans than  the  Tlascalans,  but  some  relief  was 
found  in  the  stone  shelters  which  had  been  built  at 


134     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

certain  intervals  along  the  roads  for  the  accom- 
modation of  couriers  and  other  travelers. 

At  last  they  reached  the  crest  of  the  sierra 
which  unites  Popocatepetl,  the  ''great  Volcan" 
to  its  sister  mountain  the  "Woman  in  White." 
Soon  after,  at  a  turning  of  the  road,  the  invaders 
enjoyed  their  first  view  of  the  famous  Valley  of 
Mexico  or  Tenochtitlan,  with  its  beautiful  lakes 
in  their  setting  of  cultivated  plains,  here  and 
there  varied  by  woods  and  forests.  "In  the 
midst,  like  some  Indian  empress  with  her  coronal 
of  pearls,  the  fair  city  with  her  white  towers  and 
pyramidal  temples,  reposing  as  it  were  on  the 
bosom  of  the  waters — the  far-famed  'Venice  of 
the  Aztecs.' " 

This  view  of  the  "Promised  Land"  will  remind 
some  of  the  picturesque  account  given  by  Livy 
(xxi,  35)  of  Hannibal  reaching  the  top  of  the 
pass  over  the  Alps  and  pointing  out  the  fair  pros- 
pect of  Italy  to  his  soldiers.  We  may  thus  render 
the  passage :  "On  the  ninth  day  the  ridge  of  the 
Alps  was  reached,  over  ground  generally  track- 
less and  by  roundabout  ways.  .  .  .  The  order  for 
marching  being  given  at  break  of  day,  the  army 
were  sluggishly  advancing  over  ground  wholly 
covered  with  snow,  listlessness,  and  despair  de- 
picted on  the  features  of  all,  Hannibal  went  on 
in  front,  and  after  ordering  the  soldiers  to  halt 
on  a  height  which  commanded  a  distant  view,  far 
and  wide,  points  out  to  them  Italy  and  the  plains 
of  Lombardy  on  both  banks  of  the  Po,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alps,  telling  them  that  at  that  moment  they 
were  crossing  not  only  the  walls  of  Italy  but  of 
the  Roman  capital ;  that  the  rest  of  the  march  was 
easy  and  downhill."  The  situation  of  Hannibal 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  135 

and  his  Carthaginians  surveying  Italy  for  the 
first  time  is  in  some  respects  closely  analogous 
to  that  of  Cortes  pointing  out  the  Valley  of  Mex- 
ico to  his  Spanish  soldiers. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CORTES  AND  MONTEZUMA 

WE  have  now  seen  the  Spanish  conquerors 
with  a  large  contingent  of  6,000  natives  surmount- 
ing the  mountains  to  the  east  of  the  Mexican  Val- 
ley and  looking  down  upon  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco 
on  which  were  built  the  sister  capitals.  Monte- 
zuma,  the  Aztec  monarch,  was  already  in  a  state 
of  dismay,  and  sent  still  another  embassy  to  pro- 
pitiate the  terrible  Cortes,  with  a  great  present 
of  gold  and  robes  of  the  most  precious  fabrics 
and  workmanship;  and  a  promise  that,  if  the 
foreign  general  would  turn  back  toward  Vera 
Cruz,  the  Mexicans  would  pay  down  four  loads 
of  gold  for  himself  and  one  to  each  of  his  cap- 
tains, besides  a  yearly  tribute  to  their  king  in 
Europe. 

These  promises  did  not  reach  Cortes  till  he 
was  descending  from  the  sierra.  He  replied  that 
details  were  best  arranged  by  a  personal  inter- 
view, and  that  the  Spaniards  came  with  peaceful 
motives. 

Montezuma  was  now  plunged  in  deep  despair. 
At  last  he  summoned  a  council  to  consult  his 
nobles  and  especially  his  nephew,  the  young  King 


I36     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

of  Tezcuco,  and  his  warlike  brother.  The  latter 
advised  him  to  "muster  as  large  an  army  as  pos- 
sible, and  drive  back  the  invaders  from  his  capital 
or  die  in  its  defense."  "Ah!"  replied  the  mon- 
arch, "the  gods  have  declared  themselves  against 
us !"  Still  another  embassy  was  prepared,  with 
his  nephew,  lord  of  Tezcuco,  at  its  head,  to  offer 
a  welcome  to  the  unwelcome  visitors. 

Cortes  approached  through  fertile  fields,  plan- 
tations, and  maguey-vineyards  till  they  reached 
Lake  Chalco.  There  they  found  a  large  town 
built  in  the  water  on  piles,  with  canals  instead 
of  streets,  full  of  movement  and  animation.  "The 
Spaniards  were  particularly  struck  with  the  style 
and  commodious  structure  of  the  houses,  chiefly 
of  stone,  and  with  the  general  aspect  of  wealth 
and  even  elegance  which  prevailed." 

Next  morning  the  King  of  Tezcuco  came  to 
visit  Cortes,  in  a  palanquin  richly  decorated  with 
plates  of  gold  and  precious  stones,  under  a  canopy 
of  green  plumes.  He  was  accompanied  by  a  nu- 
merous suite.  Advancing  with  the  Mexican  salu- 
tation, he  said  he  had  been  commanded  by  Mon- 
tezuma  to  welcome  him  to  the  capital,  at  the  same 
time  offering  three  splendid  pearls  as  a  present. 
Cortes  "in  return  threw  over  the  young  king's 
neck  a  chain  of  cut  glass,  which,  where  glass 
was  as  rare  as  diamonds,  might  be  admitted  to 
have  a  value  as  real  as  the  latter." 

The  army  of  Cortes  next  marched  along  the 
southern  side  of  Lake  Chalco,  "through  noble 
woods  and  by  orchards  glowing  with  autumnal 
fruits,  of  unknown  names,  but  rich  and  tempting 
hues."  They  also  passed  "through  cultivated 
fields  waving  with  the  yellow  harvest,  and  irri- 


CORTES   AND   MONTEZUMA  137 

gated  by  canals  introduced  from  the  neighboring 
lake,  the  whole  showing  a  careful  and  economical 
husbandry,  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  a 
crowded  population."  A  remarkable  public  work 
next  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Spaniards,  viz., 
a  solid  causeway  of  stone  and  lime  running  di- 
rectly through  the  lake,  in  some  places  so  wide 
that  eight  horsemen  could  ride  on  it  abreast.  Its 
length  is  some  four  or  five  miles.  Marching 
along  this  causeway,  they  saw  other  wonders ; 
numbers  of  the  natives  darting  in  all  directions  in 
their  skiffs,  curious  to  watch  the  strangers  march- 
ing, and  some  of  them  bearing  the  products  of 
the  country  to  the  neighboring  cities.  They  were 
amazed  also  by  the  sight  of  the  floating  gardens, 
teeming  with  flowers  and  vegetables,  and  moving 
like  rafts  over  the  waters.  All  round  the  mar- 
gin, and  occasionally  far  in  the  lake,  they  beheld 
little  towns  and  villages,  which,  half  concealed 
by  the  foliage,  and  gathered  in  white  clusters 
round  the  shore,  "looked  in  the  distance  like  com- 
panies of  white  swans  riding  quietly  on  the 
waves."  About  the  middle  of  this  lake  was  a 
town,  to  which  the  Spaniards  gave  the  name  of 
Venezuela*  (i.  e.,  "Little  Venice").  From  its 
situation  and  the  style  of  the  buildings,  Cortes 
called  it  the  most  beautiful  town  that  he  had  yet 
seen  in  New  Spain. 

After  crossing  the  isthmus  which  separates 
that  lake  from  Lake  Tezcuco  they  were  now  at 
Iztapalapan,  a  royal  residence  in  charge  of  the 
Emperor's  brother.  Here  a  ceremonious  recep- 

*  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Indian  village  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Maracaibo,  to  which  (with  similar  motive)  Vespucci 
had  given  that  name — now  capital  of  a  large  republic. 


138     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

tion  was  given  to  Cortes  and  his  staff,  "a  collation 
being  served  in  one  of  the  great  halls  of  the 
palace.  The  excellence  of  the  architecture  here 
excited  the  admiration  of  the  general.  The  build- 
ings were  of  stone,  and  the  spacious  apartments 
had  roofs  of  odorous  cedar-wood,  while  the  walls 
were  tapestried  with  fine  cotton  stained  with  bril- 
liant colors. 

"But  the  pride  of  Iztapalapan  was  its  cele- 
brated gardens,  covering  an  immense  tract  of 
land  and  laid  out  in  regular  squares.  The  gar- 
dens were  stocked  with  fruit-trees  and  with  the 
gaudy  family  of  flowers  which  belonged  to  the 
Mexican  flora,  scientifically  arranged,  and  grow- 
ing luxuriant  in  the  equable  temperature  of  the 
table-land.  In  one  quarter  was  an  aviary  filled 
with  numerous  kinds  of  birds  remarkable  in  this 
region  both  for  brilliancy  of  plumage  and  for 
song.  But  the  most  elaborate  piece  of  work  was 
a  huge  reservoir  of  stone,  filled  to  a  considerable 
height  with  water,  well  supplied  with  different 
sorts  of  fish.  This  basin  was  1,600  paces  in  cir- 
cumference, and  surrounded  by  a  walk." 

Readers  must  remember  that  at  that  age  no 
beautiful  gardens  on  a  large  scale  were  known  in 
any  part  of  Europe.  The  first  "garden  of  plants" 
(to  use  the  name  afterward  applied  by  the 
French)  is  said  to  have  been  an  Italian  one,  at 
Padua,  in  1545,  a  whole  generation  after  the  time 
of  the  arrival  of  Cortes  in  Mexico.  It  was  only 
under  Louis  "Le  Magnifique"  that  France  cre- 
ated the  Versailles  Gardens,  and  not  till  the  time 
of  George  III  and  his  tutor  Bute  could  we  boast 
of  the  gardens  at  Kew,  now  admired  by  all  the 
world.  The  ancient  Mexicans,  therefore,  under 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  '139 

their  extinct  civilization,  had  developed  this  taste 
for  the  beautiful  many  ages  before  the  most  cul- 
tivated races  in  Europe. 

Cortes  took  up  his  quarters  at  this  residence 
of  Iztapalapan  for  the  night,  expecting  to  meet 
Montezuma  on  the  morrow.  Mexico  was  now 
distinctly  full  in  view,  looking  "like  a  thing  of 
fairy  creation,"  a  city  of  enchantment. 

There  Aztlan  stood  upon  the  farther  shore; 

Amid  the  shade  of  trees  its  dwellings  rose, 

Their  level  roofs  with  turrets  set  around 

And  battlements  all  burnished  white,  which  shone 

Like  silver  in  the  sunshine.     I  beheld 

The  imperial  city,  her  far-circling  walls, 

Her  garden  groves  and  stately  palaces, 

Her  temples  mountain  size,  her  thousand  roofs, 

And  when  I  saw  her  might  and  majesty 

My  mind  misgave  me  then. 

Madoc,  i,  6. 

That  following  day,  November  8,  1519,  should 
be  noted  in  every  calendar,  when  the  great  cap- 
ital of  the  Western  World  admitted  the  conquer- 
ing general  from  the  Eastern  World.  The  in- 
vaders were  now  upon  a  larger  causeway,  which 
stretched  across  the  salt  waters  of  Lake  Tezcuco ; 
and  "had  occasion  more  than  ever  to  admire  the 
mechanical  science  of  the  Aztecs."  It  was  wide 
enough  throughout  its  whole  extent  for  ten  horse- 
men to  ride  abreast. 

The  Spaniards  saw  everywhere  "evidence  of  a 
crowded  and  thriving  population,  exceeding  all 
they  had  yet  seen."  The  water  was  darkened 
by  swarms  of  canoes  filled  with  Indians ;  and 
here  also  were  those  fairy  islands  of  flowers.  Half 


14°     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

a  league  from  the  capital  they  encountered  a 
solid  work  of  stone,  which  traversed  the  road.  It 
was  twelve  feet  high,  strengthened  by  towers  at 
the  extremities,  and  in  the  center  was  a  battle- 
mented  gateway,  which  opened  a  passage  to  the 
troops. 

Here  they  were  met  by  several  hundred  Aztec 
chiefs,  who  came  out  to  announce  the  approach 
of  Montezuma,  and  to  welcome  the  Spaniards  to 
his  capital.  They  were  dressed  in  the  fanciful 
gala  costume  of  the  country,  with  the  cotton  sash 
around  their  loins,  and  a  broad  mantle  of  the 
same  material,  or  of  the  brilliant  feather  em- 
broidery, flowing  gracefully  down  their  shoul- 
ders. On  their  necks  and  arms  they  displayed 
collars  and  bracelets  of  turquoise  mosaic,  with 
which  delicate  plumage  was  curiously  mingled, 
while  their  ears,  under  lips,  and  occasionally  their 
noses  were  garnished  with  pendants  formed  of 
precious  stones,  or  crescents  of  fine  gold. 

After  all  the  caziques  had  performed  the  same 
formal  salutation  separately,  there  was  no  further 
delay  till  they  reached  a  bridge  near  the  gates  of 
the  capital.  Soon  after  "they  beheld  the  glitter- 
ing retinue  of  the  Emperor  emerging  from  the 
great  street  leading  through  the  heart  of  the  city. 
Amid  a  crowd  of  Indian  nobles  preceded  by  three 
officers  of  state  bearing  golden  wands,  they  saw 
the  royal  palanquin  blazing  with  burnished  goldi 
It  was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  nobles,  and  over 
it  a  canopy  of  gaudy  feather-work,  covered  with 
jewels  and  fringed  with  silver,  was  supported  by 
four  attendants  of  the  same  rank." 

At  a  certain  distance  from  the  Spaniards  "the 
train  halted,  and  Montezuma,  descending  from 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  141 

the  litter,  came  forward,  leaning  on  the  arms  of 
the  lords  of  Tezcuco  and  Iztapalapan" — the  Em- 
peror's nephew  and  brother,  already  mentioned. 
"As  the  monarch  advanced,  his  subjects,  who 
lined  the  sides  of  the  causeway,  bent  forward,  with 
their  eyes  fastened  on  the  ground,  as  he  passed." 

Montezuma  wore  the  ample  square  cloak  com- 
mon to  the  Mexicans,  but  of  the  finest  cotton 
sprinkled  with  pearls  and  precious  stones ;  his 
sandals  were  similarly  sprinkled,  and  had  soles  of 
solid  gold.  His  only  head  ornament  was  a  bunch 
of  feathers  of  the  royal  green  color.  A  man  about 
forty ;  tall  and  rather  thin ;  black  hair,  cut  rather 
short  for  a  person  of  rank ;  dignified  in  his  move- 
ments ;  his  features  wearing  an  expression  of  be- 
nignity not  to  be  expected  from  his  character. 

After  dismounting  from  horseback,  Cortes  ad- 
vanced to  meet  Montezuma,  who  received  him 
with  princely  courtesy,  while  Cortes  responded  by 
profound  expressions  of  respect,  with  thanks  for 
his  experience  of  the  Emperor's  munificence.  He 
then  hung  round  Montezuma's  neck  a  sparkling 
chain  of  colored  crystal,  accompanying  this  with 
a  movement  as  if  to  embrace  him,  when  he  was 
restrained  by  the  two  Aztec  lords,  shocked  at  the 
menaced  profanation  of  the  sacred  person  of  their 
monarch  and  master. 

Montezuma  appointed  his  brother  to  conduct 
the  Spaniards  to  their  residence  in  the  capital,  and 
was  again  carried  through  the  adoring  crowds  in 
his  litter.  "The  Spaniards  quickly  followed,  and 
with  colors  flying  and  music  playing  soon  made 
their  entrance  into  the  southern  quarter." 

On  entering  "they  found  fresh  cause  for  ad- 
miration in  the  grandeur  of  the  city  and  the 


142     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

superior  style  of  its  architecture.  The  great 
avenue  through  which  they  were  now  marching 
was  lined  with  the  houses  of  the  nobles,  who  were 
encouraged  by  the  Emperor  to  make  the  capital 
their  residence.  The  flat  roofs  were  protected  by 
stone  parapets,  so  that  every  house  was  a  fortress. 
Sometimes  these  roofs  seemed  parterres  of  flow- 
ers .  .  .  broad  terraced  gardens  laid  out  be- 
tween the  buildings.  Occasionally  a  great  square 
intervened  surrounded  by  its  porticoes  of  stone 
and  stucco ;  or  a  pyramidal  temple  reared  its 
colossal  bulk  crowned  with  its  tapering  sanctu- 
aries, and  altars  blazing  with  unextinguishable 
fires.  But  what  most  impressed  the  Spaniards 
was  the  throngs  of  people  who  swarmed  through 
the  streets  and  on  the  canals." 

Probably,  however,  the  spectacle  of  the  Euro- 
pean army  with  their  horses,  their  guns,  bright 
swords  and  helmets  of  steel,  a  metal  to  them  un- 
known; their  weird  and  mysterious  music — the 
whole  formed  to  the  Aztec  populace  an  inex- 
plicable wonder,  combined  with  those  foreigners 
who  had  arrived  from  the  distant  East,  "reveal- 
ing their  celestial  origin  in  their  fair  complex- 
ions." Many  of  the  Aztec  citizens  betrayed  keen 
hatred  of  the  Tlascalans  who  marched  with  the 
Spaniards  in  friendly  alliance. 

At  length  Cortes  with  his  mixed  army  halted< 
near  the  center  of  the  city  in  a  great  open  space, 
"where  rose  the  huge  pyramidal  pile  dedicated 
to  the  patron  war-god  of  the  Aztecs,  second  only 
to  the  temple  of  Cholula  in  size  as  well  as  sanc- 
tity." The  present  famous  cathedral  of  modern 
Mexico  is  built  on  part  of  the  same  site. 

A  palace  built  opposite  the  west  side  of  the 


CORTES   AND  MONTEZUMA  143 

great  temple  was  assigned  to  Cortes.  It  was  ex- 
tensive enough  to  accommodate  the  whole  of  the 
army  of  Cortes.  Montezuma  paid  him  a  visit 
there,  having  a  long  conversation  through  the 
indispensable  assistance  of  Marina,  the  slave  in- 
terpreter. "That  evening  the  Spaniards  cele- 
brated their  arrival  in  the  Mexican  capital  by  a 
general  discharge  of  artillery.  The  thunders  of 
the  ordnance  reverberating  among  the  buildings 
and  shaking  them  to  their  foundations,  the  stench 
of  the  sulfureous  vapor  reminding  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  explosions  of  the  great  volcano 
(Popocatepetl)  filled  the  hearts  of  the  supersti- 
tious Aztecs  with  dismay." 

Next  day  Cortes  had  gracious  permission  to 
return  the  visit  of  the  Emperor,  and  therefore 
proceeded  to  wait  upon  him  at  the  royal  palace, 
dressed  in  his  richest  suit  of  clothes.  The  Spanish 
general  felt  the  importance  of  the  occasion  and 
resolved  to  exercise  all  his  eloquence  and  power 
of  argument  in  attempting  the  "conversion"  of 
Montezuma  to  the  Christian  faith. 

For  this  purpose,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
faithful  Marina,  Cortes  engaged  the  Emperor  in 
a  theological  discussion ;  explaining  the  creation 
of  the  world  as  taught  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures ; 
the  fall  of  man  from  his  first  happy  and  holy  con- 
dition by  the  temptation  of  Satan ;  the  mysterious 
redemption  of  the  human  race  by  the  incarnation 
and  atonement  of  the  Son  of  God  Himself.  "He 
assured  Montezuma  that  the  idols  worshiped  in 
Mexico  were  Satan  under  different  forms.  A 
sufficient  proof  of  this  was  the  bloody  sacrifices 
they  imposed,  which  he  contrasted  with  the  pure 
and  simple  rite  of  the  mass.  It  was  to  snatch  the 


144     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

Emperor's  soul  and  the  souls  of  his  people  from 
the  flames  of  eternal  fire  that  the  Christians  had 
come  to  this  land." 

Montezuma  replied  that  the  God  of  the  Span- 
iards must  be  a  good  being,  and  "my  gods  also 
are  good  to  me ;  there  was  no  need  to  further  dis- 
course on  the  matter."  If  he  had  "resisted  their 
visit  to  his  capital,  it  was  because  he  had  heard 
such  accounts  of  their  cruelties — that  they  sent 
the  lightning  to  consume  his  people,  or  crushed 
them  to  pieces  under  the  hard  feet  of  the  ferocious 
animals  on  which  they  rode.  He  "was  now  con- 
vinced that  these  were  idle  tales ;  that  the  Span- 
iards were  kind  and  generous  in  their  nature." 
He  concluded  by  admitting  the  superiority  of  the 
sovereign  of  Cortes  beyond  the  seas.  "Your  sov- 
ereign is  the  rightful  lord  of  all :  I  rule  in  his 
name." 

The  rough  Spanish  cavaliers  were  touched  by 
the  kindness  and  affability  of  Montezuma.  As 
they  passed  him,  says  Diaz,  in  his  History,  they 
made  him  the  most  profound  obeisance,  hat  in 
hand;  and  on  the  way  home  could  discourse  of 
nothing  but  the  gentle  breeding  and  courtesy  of 
the  Indian  monarch. 

MONTEZUMA'S  CAPITAL 

Cortes  and  his  army  being  now  fairly  domes- 
ticated in  Mexico,  and  the  Emperor  having  ap- 
parently become  reconciled  to  the  presence  of  his 
formidable  guests,  we  may  pause  to  consider  the 
surroundings. 

The  present  capital  occupies  the  site  of  Tenoch- 
titlan,  but  many  changes  have  occurred  in  the 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  145 

intervening  four  centuries.  First  of  all,  the  salt 
waters  of  the  great  lake  have  entirely  shrunk 
away,  leaving  modern  Mexico  high  and  dry,  a 
league  away  from  the  waters  that  Cortes  saw 
flowing  in  ample  canals  through  all  the  streets. 
Formerly  the  houses  stood  on  elevated  piles  and 
were  independent  of  the  floods  which  rose  in  Lake 
Tezcuco  by  the  overflowing  of  other  lakes  on  a 
higher  level.  But  when  the  foundations  were  on 
solid  ground  it  became  necessary  to  provide 
against  the  accumulated  volume  of  water  by  ex- 
cavating a  tunnel  to  drain  off  the  flood.  This 
was  constructed  about  one  hundred  years  after 
the  invasion  of  the  Spaniards,  and  has  been  de- 
scribed by  Humboldt  as  "one  of  the  most  stu- 
pendous hydraulic  works  in  existence." 

The  appearance  of  the  lake  and  suburbs  of  the 
capital  have  long  lost  much  of  the  attractive  ap- 
pearance they  had  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
visit ;  but  the  town  itself  is  still  the  most  brilliant 
city  in  Spanish  America,  surmounted  by  a  cathe- 
dral, which  forms  "the  most  sumptuous  house  of 
worship  in  the  New  World." 

The  great  causeway  already  described  as  lead- 
ing north  from  the  royal  city  of  Iztapalapan,  had 
another  to  the  north  of  the  capital,  which  might 
be  called  its  continuation.  The  third  causeway, 
leading  west  to  the  town  Tacuba  from  the  island 
city,  will  be  noticed  presently  as  the  scene  of  the 
Spaniards'  retreat. 

There  were  excellent  police  regulations  for 
health  and  cleanliness.  Water  supplied  by 
earthen  pipes  was  from  a  hill  about  two  miles 
distant.  Besides  the  palaces  and  temples  there 
were  several  important  buildings :  an  armory 

10 


146     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

filled  with  weapons  and  military  dresses ;  a  gran- 
ary ;  various  warehouses ;  an  immense  aviary, 
with  "birds  of  splendid  plumage  assembled  from 
all  parts  of  the  empire — the  scarlet  cardinal,  the 
golden  pheasant,  the  endless  parrot  tribe,  and  that 
miniature  miracle  of  nature,  the  humming-bird, 
which  delights  to  revel  among  the  honeysuckle 
bowers  of  Mexico."  The  birds  of  prey  had  a 
separate  building.  The  menagerie  adjoining  the 
aviary  showed  wild  animals  from  the  mountain 
forests,  as  well  as  creatures  from  the  remote 
swamps  of  the  hot  lands  by  the  seashore.  The 
serpents  "were  confined  in  long  cages  lined  with 
down  or  feathers,  or  in  troughs  of  mud  and 
water." 

Wishing  to  visit  the  great  Mexican  temple, 
Cortes,  with  his  cavalry  and  most  of  his  infantry, 
followed  the  caziques  whom  Montezuma  had  po- 
litely sent  as  guides. 

On  their  way  to  the  central  square  the  Span- 
iards "were  struck  with  the  appearance  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  their  great  superiority  in  the 
style  and  quality  of  their  dress  over  the  people  of 
the  lower  countries.  The  women,  as  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  seemed  to  go  about  as  freely 
as  the  men.  They  wore  several  skirts  or  petti- 
coats of  different  lengths,  with  highly  orna- 
mented borders,  and  sometimes  over  them  loos,e- 
flowing  robes,  which  reached  to  the  ankles.  No 
veils  were  worn  here  as  in  some  other  parts  of 
Anahuac.  The  Aztec  women  had  their  faces  ex- 
posed ;  and  their  dark  raven  tresses  floated  lux- 
uriantly over  their  shoulders,  revealing  features 
which,  although  of  a  dusky  or  rather  cinnamon 
hue,  were  not  un  frequently  pleasing,  while 


CORTES  AND  MONTEZUMA  147 

touched  with  the  serious,  even  sad  expression 
characteristic  of  the  national  physiognomy." 

When  near  the  great  market  "the  Spaniards 
were  astonished  at  the  throng  of  people  pressing 
toward  it,  and  on  entering  the  place  their  sur- 
prise was  still  further  heightened  by  the  sight  of 
the  multitudes  assembled  there,  and  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  enclosure,  twice  as  large,  says  one 
Spanish  observer,  as  the  celebrated  square  of 
Salamanca.  Here  were  traders  from  all  parts ; 
the  goldsmiths  from  Azcapozalco,  the  potters  and 
jewelers  of  Cholula,  the  painters  of  Tezcuco,  the 
stone-cutters,  hunters,  fishermen,  fruiterers,  mat 
and  chair  makers,  florists,  etc.  The  pottery  de- 
partment was  a  large  one;  so  were  the  armories 
for  implements  of  war;  razors  and  mirrors — 
booths  for  apothecaries  with  drugs,  roots,  and 
medical  preparations.  In  other  places  again, 
blank-books  or  maps  for  the  hieroglyphics  or 
pictographs  were  to  be  seen  folded  together  like 
fans.  Animals  both  wild  and  tame  were  offered 
for  sale,  and  near  them,  perhaps,  a  gang  of  slaves 
with  collars  round  their  necks.  One  of  the  most 
attractive  features  of  the  market  was  the  display 
of  provisions :  meats  of  all  kinds,  domestic  poul- 
try, game  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  fish 
from  the  lakes  and  streams,  fruits  in  all  the  de- 
licious abundance  of  these  temperate  regions, 
green  vegetables,  and  the  unfailing  maize." 

This  market,  like  hundreds  of  smaller  ones, 
was  of  course  held  every  fifth  day — the  week  of 
the  ancient  Mexicans  being  one-fourth  of  the 
twenty  days  which  constituted  the  Aztec  month. 
This  great  market  was  comparable  to  "the  period- 
ical fairs  in  Europe,  not  as  they  now  exist,  but  as 


148     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE   WEST 

they  existed  in  the  middle  ages,"  when  from  the 
difficulties  of  intercommunication  they  served  as 
the  great  central  marts  for  commercial  inter- 
course, exercising  a  most  important  and  salutary 
influence  on  the  community. 

One  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  party  accompany- 
ing Cortes  was  the  historian  Diaz,  and  his  testi- 
mony is  remarkable : 

There  were  among  us  soldiers  who  had  been  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  Constantinople  and  Rome,  and  through 
all  Italy,  and  who  said  that  a  market-place  so  large,  so  well 
ordered  and  regulated,  and  so  filled  with  people,  they  had 
never  seen. 

Proceeding  next  to  the  great  teocalli  or  Aztec 
temple,  covering  the  site  of  the  modern  cathedral 
with  part  of  the  market-place  and  some  adjoining 
streets,  they  found  it  in  the  midst  of  a  great  open 
space,  surrounded  by  a  high  stone  wall,  orna- 
mented on  the  outside  by  figures  of  serpents 
raised  in  relief,  and  pierced  by  huge  battlemented 
gateways  opening  on  the  four  principal  streets  of 
the  capital.  The  teocalli  itself  was  a  solid  pyram- 
idal structure  of  earth  and  pebbles,  coated  on 
the  outside  with  hewn  stones,  the  sides  facing  the 
cardinal  points.  It  was  divided  into  five  stories, 
each  of  smaller  dimensions  than  that  immediately 
below.  The  ascent  was  by  a  flight  of  steps  on( 
the  outside,  which  reached  to  the  narrow  terrace 
at  the  bottom  of  the  second  story,  passing  quite 
round  the  building,  when  a  second  stairway  con- 
ducted to  a  similar  landing  at  the  base  of  the 
third.  Thus  the  visitor  was  obliged  to  pass 
round  the  whole  edifice  four  times  in  order  to 
reach  the  top.  This  had  a  most  imposing  effect 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  149 

in  the  religious  ceremonials,  when  the  pompous 
procession  of  priests  with  their  wild  minstrelsy 
came  sweeping  round  the  huge  sides  of  the  pyra- 
mid, as  they  rose  higher  and  higher  toward  the 
summit  in  full  view  of  the  populace  assembled  in 
their  thousands. 

Cortes  marched  up  the  steps  at  the  head  of  his 
men,  and  found  at  the  summit  "a  vast  area  paved 
with  broad  flat  stones.  The  first  object  that  met 
their  view  was  a  large  block  of  jasper,  the  pecul- 
iar shape  of  which  showed  it  was  the  stone  on 
which  the  bodies  of  the  unhappy  victims  were 
stretched  for  sacrifice.  Its  convex  surface,  by 
raising  the  breast,  enabled  the  priest  to  perform 
more  easily  his  diabolical  task  of  removing  the 
heart.  At  the  other  end  of  the  area  were  two 
towers  or  sanctuaries,  consisting  of  three  stories, 
the  lower  one  of  stone,  the  two  upper  of  wood 
elaborately  carved.  In  the  lower  division  stood 
the  images  of  their  gods;  the  apartments  above 
were  filled  with  utensils  for  their  religious  serv- 
ices, and  with  the  ashes  of  some  of  their  Aztec 
princes  who  had  fancied  this  airy  sepulcher.  Be- 
fore each  sanctuary  stood  an  altar,  with  that  un- 
dying fire  upon  it,  the  extinction  of  which  boded 
as  much  evil  to  the  empire  as  that  of  the  Vestal 
flame  would  have  done  in  ancient  Rome.  Here 
also  was  the  huge  cylindrical  drum  made  of  ser- 
pents' skins,  and  struck  only  on  extraordinary  oc- 
casions, when  it  sent  forth  a  melancholy,  weird 
sound,  that  might  be  heard  for  miles"  over  the 
country,  indicating  fierce  anger  of  deity  against 
the  enemies  of  Mexico. 

As  Cortes  reached  the  summit  he  was  met  by 
the  Emperor  himself  attended  by  the  high  priest. 


15°     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

Taking  the  general  by  the  hand,  Montezuma 
pointed  out  the  chief  localities  in  the  wide  pros- 
pect which  their  position  commanded,  including 
not  only  the  capital,  "bathed  on  all  sides  by  the 
salt  floods  of  the  Tezcuco,  and  in  the  distance  the 
clear  fresh  waters  of  Lake  Chalco,"  but  the  whole 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  to  the  base  of  the  cir- 
cular range  of  mountains,  and  the  wreaths  of 
vapor  rolling  up  from  the  hoary  head  of  Popo- 
catepetl. 

Cortes  was  allowed  "to  behold  the  shrines  of 
the  gods.  They  found  themselves  in  a  spacious 
apartment,  with  sculptures  on  the  walls,  repre- 
senting the  Mexican  calendar,  or  the  priestly 
ritual.  Before  the  altar  in  this  sanctuary  stood 
the  colossal  image  of  Huitzilopochtli,  the  tutelary 
deity  and  war-god  of  the  Aztecs.  His  counte- 
nance was  distorted  into  hideous  lineaments  of 
symbolical  import.  The  huge  folds  of  a  serpent, 
consisting  of  pearls  and  precious  stones,  were 
coiled  round  his  waist,  and  the  same  rich  mate- 
rials were  profusely  sprinkled  over  his  person. 
On  his  left  foot  were  the  delicate  feathers  of  the 
humming-bird,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  dread 
deity.  The  most  conspicuous  ornament  was  a 
chain  of  gold  and  silver  hearts  alternate,  sus- 
pended round  his  neck,  emblematical  of  the  sacri- 
fice in  which  he  most  delighted.  A  more  un- 
equivocal evidence  of  this  was  afforded  by  three- 
human  hearts  that  now  lay  smoking  on  the  altar 
before  him. 

"The  adjoining  sanctuary  was  dedicated  to  a 
milder  deity.  This  was  Tezcatlipoca,  who  created 
the  world,  next  in  honor  to  that  invisible  being 
the  Supreme  God,  who  was  represented  by  no 


CORTES   AND   MONTEZUMA  151 

image,  and  confined  by  no  temple.  He  was  rep- 
resented as  a  young  man,  and  his  image  of  pol- 
ished black  stone  was  richly  garnished  with  gold 
plates  and  ornaments.  But  the  homage  to  this 
god  was  not  always  of  a  more  refined  or  merci- 
ful character  than  that  paid  to  his  carnivorous 
brother." 

According  to  Diaz,  whom  we  have  already 
quoted,  the  stench  of  human  gore  in  both  those 
chapels  was  more  intolerable  than  that  of  all  the 
slaughter-houses  in  Castile.  Glad  to  escape  into 
the  open  air,  Cortes  expressed  wonder  that  a 
great  and  wise  prince  like  Montezuma  could  have 
faith  "in  such  evil  spirits  as  these  idols,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  devil !  Permit  us  to  erect  here 
the  true  cross,  and  place  the  images  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  her  Son  in  these  sanctuaries  ;  you  will 
soon  see  how  your  false  gods  will  shrink  before 
them !" 

This  extraordinary  speech  of  the  general 
shocked  Montezuma,  who,  in  reproof,  said :  "Had 
I  thought  you  would  have  offered  this  outrage  to 
the  gods  of  the  Aztecs,  I  would  not  have  admitted 
you  into  their  presence." 

Cortes,  as  a  general,  had  some  of  the  great 
qualities  of  Napoleon,  but  he  also  resembled  him 
occasionally  in  a  singular  lack  of  delicacy  and 
good  taste.  We  do  not,  however,  find  that  he  ever 
showed  such  mean  malignity  as  the  French  gen- 
eral did  when  persecuting  Madame  de  Stael, 
because  in  her  Germany  she  had  omitted  to  men- 
tion his  campaigns  and  administration. 

Within  the  same  enclosure,  Cortes  and  his 
companions  visited  a  temple  dedicated  to  Quet- 
zalcoatl,  a  god  referred  to  already.  Other  build- 


IS2     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

ings  served  as  seminaries  for  the  instruction  of 
youth  of  both  sexes ;  and  according  to  the  Spanish 
accounts  of  the  teaching  and  management  of 
these  institutions  there  was  "the  greatest  care  for 
morals  and  the  most  blameless  deportment." 

SEIZURE  OF  MONTEZUMA 

After  being  guest  of  the  Mexican  Emperor  for 
a  week,  Cortes  resolved  to  carry  out  a  most 
daring  and  unprecedented  scheme  —  a  purely 
"Napoleonic  movement,"  such  as  could  scarcely 
have  entered  the  brain  of  any  general  ancient  or 
modern.  He  argued  with  himself  that  a  quarrel 
might  at  any  moment  break  out  between  his  men 
and  the  citizens ;  the  Spaniards  again  could  not 
remain  long  quiet  unless  actively  employed ;  and, 
thirdly,  there  was  still  greater  danger  with  the 
Tlascalans,  "a  fierce  race  now  in  daily  contact 
with  a  nation  that  regards  them  with  loathing 
and  detestation."  Lastly,  the  Governor  of  Cuba, 
already  grossly  offended  with  Cortes,  might  at 
any  moment  send  after  him  a  sufficient  army  to 
wrest  from  him  the  glory  of  conquest.  Cortes 
therefore  formed  the  daring  resolve  to  seize  Mon- 
tezuma  in  his  palace  and  carry  him  as  a  prisoner 
to  the  Spanish  quarters.  He  hoped  thus  to  have 
in  his  own  hands  the  supreme  management  of 
affairs,  and  at  the  same  time  secure  his  own  safety 
with  such  a  "sacred  pledge"  in  keeping. 

It  was  necessary  to  find  a  pretext  for  seizing 
the  hospitable  Montezuma.  News  had  already 
come  to  Cortes,  when  at  Cholula,  that  Escalante, 
whom  he  had  left  in  charge  of  Vera  Cruz,  had 
been  defeated  by  the  Aztecs  in  a  pitched  bat- 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  153 

tie,  and  that  the  head  of  a  Spaniard,  then  slain, 
had  been  sent  to  the  Emperor,  after  being  shown 
in  triumph  throughout  some  of  the  chief  cities. 

Cortes  asked  an  audience  from  Montezuma, 
and  that  being  readily  granted,  he  prepared  for 
his  plot  by  having  a  large  body  of  armed  men 
posted  in  the  courtyard.  Choosing  five  com- 
panions of  tried  courage,  Cortes  then  entered  the 
palace,  and  after  being  graciously  received,  told 
Montezuma  that  he  knew  of  the  treachery  that 
had  taken  place  near  the  coast,  and  that  the  Em- 
peror was  said  to  be  the  cause. 

The  Emperor  said  that  such  a  charge  could 
only  have  been  concocted  by  his  enemies.  He 
agreed  with  the  proposal  of  Cortes  to  summon  the 
Aztec  chief  who  was  accused  of  treachery  to  the 
garrison  at  Vera  Cruz ;  and  was  then  persuaded 
to  transfer  his  residence  to  the  palace  occupied 
by  the  Spaniards.  He  was  there  received  and 
treated  with  ostentatious  respect ;  but  his  people 
observed  that  in  front  of  the  palace  there  was 
constantly  posted  a  patrol  of  sixty  soldiers,  with 
another  equally  large  in  the  rear. 

When  the  Aztec  chief  arrived  from  the  coast, 
he  and  his  sixteen  Aztec  companions  were  con- 
demned to  be  burned  alive  before  the  palace. 

The  next  daring  act  of  the  Spanish  general  was 
to  order  iron  fetters  to  be  fastened  on  Monte- 
zuma's  ankles.  The  great  Emperor  seemed 
struck  with  stupor  and  spoke  never  a  word. 
Meanwhile  the  Aztec  chiefs  were  executed  in 
the  courtyard  without  interruption,  the  populace 
imagining  the  sentence  had  been  passed  upon 
them  by  Montezuma,  and  the  victims  submitting 
to  their  fate  without  a  murmur. 


154     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

Cortes  returning  then  to  the  room  where  Mon- 
tezuma  was  imprisoned,  unclasped  the  fetters  and 
said  he  was  now  at  liberty  to  return  to  his  own 
palace.  The  Emperor,  however,  declined  the 
offer. 

The  instinctive  sense  of  human  sympathy  must 
have  frequently  been  not  only  repressed  but  ex- 
tinguished by  all  the  great  conquerine  generals 
who  have  crushed  nations  under  foot.  Besides 
those  of  prehistoric  times  in  Asia  and  Europe,  we 
have  examples  in  Alexander  the  Greek,  Julius 
Caesar  the  Roman,  Cortes  and  Pizarro  the  Span- 
iards, Frederick  the  Prussian,  and  Napoleon  the 
Corsican. 

The  great  French  general  consciously  aimed  at 
dramatic  effect  in  his  exploits,  but  how  paltry  his 
seizing  the  Due  d'Enghien  at  dead  of  night  by 
a  troop  of  soldiers,  or  his  coercing  the  King  of 
Spain  to  resign  his  sovereignty  after  inducing 
him  to  cross  the  border  into  France.  In  the  un- 
paralleled case  of  Cortes,  a  powerful  emperor  is 
seized  by  a  few  strangers  at  noonday  and  carried 
off  a  prisoner  without  opposition  or  bloodshed. 
So  extraordinary  a  transaction,  says  Robertson, 
would  appear  ''extravagant  beyond  the  bounds  of 
probability"  were  it  not  that  all  the  circumstances 
are  "authenticated  by  the  most  unquestionable 
evidence." 

The  nephew  of  Montezuma,  Cakama,  the  lord, 
of  Tezcuco,  had  been  closely  watching  all  the  mo- 
tions of  the  Spaniards.  He  "beheld  with  indig- 
nation and  contempt  the  abject  condition  of  his 
uncle ;  and  now  set  about  forming  a  league  with 
several  of  the  neighboring  caziques  to  break  the 
detested  yoke  of  the  Spaniards."  News  of  this 


CORTES  AND   MONTEZUMA  155 

league  reached  the  ears  of  Cortes,  and  arresting 
him  with  the  permission  of  Montezuma,  he  de- 
posed him,  and  appointed  a  younger  brother  in  his 
place.  The  other  caziques  were  seized,  each  in 
his  own  city,  and  brought  to  Mexico,  where 
Cortes  placed  them  in  strict  confinement  along 
with  Cakama. 

The  next  step  taken  by  Cortes  was  to  demand 
from  Montezuma  an  acknowledgment  of  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Spanish  Emperor.  The  Aztec 
monarch  and  chief  caziques  easily  granted  this; 
and  even  agreed  that  a  gratuity  should  be  sent  by 
each  of  them  as  proof  of  loyalty.  Collectors  were 
sent  out,  and  "in  a  few  weeks  most  of  them  re- 
turned, bringing  back  large  quantities  of  gold 
and  silver  plate,  rich  stuffs,  etc."  To  this  Mon- 
tezuma added  a  huge  hoard,  the  treasures  of  his 
father.  When  brought  into  the  quarters,  the  gold 
alone  was  sufficient  to  make  three  great  heaps.  It 
consisted  partly  of  native  grains,  and  partly  of 
bars ;  but  the  greatest  portion  was  in  utensils,  and 
various  kinds  of  ornaments  and  curious  toys,  to- 
gether with  imitations  of  birds,  insects,  or  flow- 
ers, executed  with  uncommon  truth  and  delicacy. 
There  were  also  quantities  of  collars,  bracelets, 
wands,  fans,  and  other  trinkets,  in  which  the  gold 
and  feather-work  were  richly  powdered  with 
pearls  and  precious  stones.  Montezuma  expressed 
regret  that  the  treasure  was  no  larger;  he  had 
"diminished  it,"  he  said,  "by  his  former  gifts  to 
the  white  men." 

The  Spaniards  gazed  on  this  display  of  riches, 
far  exceeding  all  hitherto  seen  in  the  New  World 
— though  small  compared  with  the  quantity  of 
treasure  found  in  Peru.  The  whole  amount  of 


156     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

this  Mexican  gift  was  about  £1,417,000,  accord- 
ing to  Prescott,  Dr.  Robertson  making  it  smaller. 

It  was  no  easy  task  to  divide  the  spoil.  A 
fifth  had  to  be  deducted  for  the  Crown,  and  an 
equal  share  went  to  the  general,  besides  a  "large 
sum  to  indemnify  him  and  the  Governor  of  Cuba 
for  the  charges  of  the  expedition  and  the  loss  of 
the  fleet.  The  garrison  of  Vera  Cruz  was  also  to 
be  provided  for.  The  cavalry,  musketeers,  and 
crossbowmen  each  received  double  pay."  Thus 
for  each  of  the  common  soldiers  there  was  only 
100  gold  pesos — i.  e.,  £2^X100  =  £262  los.  To 
many  this  share  seemed  paltry,  compared  with 
their  expectations ;  and  it  required  all  the  tact 
and  authority  of  Cortes  to  quell  the  grumbling. 

There  still  remained  one  important  object  of 
the  Spanish  invasion,  an  object  which  Cortes  as 
a  good  Catholic  dared  not  overlook — the  conver- 
sion of  the  Aztec  nation  from  heathenism.  The 
bloody  ritual  of  the  teocallis  was  still  observed  in 
every  city.  Cortes  waited  on  Montezuma,  urging 
a  request  that  the  great  temple  be  assigned  for 
public  worship  according  to  the  Christian  rites. 

Montezuma  was  evidently  much  alarmed,  de- 
claring that  his  people  would  never  allow  such  a 
profanation,  but  at  last,  after  consulting  the  priest, 
agreed  that  one  of  the  sanctuaries  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  temple  should  be  granted  to  the  Chris- 
tians as  a  place  of  worship. 

An  altar  was  raised,  surmounted  by  a  crucifix 
and  the  image  of  the  Virgin.  The  whole  army 
ascended  the  steps  in  solemn  procession  and 
listened  with  silent  reverence  to  the  service  of 
the  mass.  In  conclusion,  "as  the  beautiful  Te 
Deum  rose  toward  heaven,.  Cortes  and  his  sol- 


CORTES  AND    MONTEZUMA  157 

diers  kneeling  on  the  ground,  with  tears  stream- 
ing from  their  eyes,  poured  forth  their  gratitude 
to  the  Almighty  for  this  glorious  triumph  of  the 
cross."  Such  a  union  of  heathenism  and  Chris- 
tianity was  too  unnatural  to  continue. 

A  few  days  later  the  Emperor  sent  for  Cortes 
and  earnestly  advised  him  to  leave  the  country 
at  once.  Cortes  replied  that  ships  were  neces- 
sary. Montezuma  agreed  to  supply  timber  and 
workmen,  and  in  a  short  time  the  construction  of 
several  ships  was  begun  at  Vera  Cruz  on  the  sea- 
coast,  while  in  the  capital  the  garrison  kept  itself 
ready  by  day  and  by  night  for  a  hostile  attack. 
Only  six  months  had  elapsed  since  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards  in  the  capital,  1519,  and  now  the 
army  was  in  more  uncomfortable  circumstances 
than  ever. 

Meanwhile,  while  Cortes  had  been  reducing 
Mexico  and  humbling  the  unfortunate  Monte- 
zuma, the  Governor  of  Cuba  had  complained  to 
the  court  of  Spain,  but  without  success.  Charles 
V,  since  his  election  to  the  imperial  crown  of 
Germany,  had  neglected  the  affairs  of  Spain ;  and 
when  the  envoys  from  Vera  Cruz  waited  upon 
him,  little  came  of  the  conference  except  the 
astonishment  of  the  court  at  the  quantity  of 
gold,  and  the  beautiful  workmanship  of  the  orna- 
ments and  the  rich  colors  of  the  Mexican  feather- 
work.  The  opposition  of  the  Bishop  of  Burgos 
thwarted  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  as  he  had  al- 
ready successfully  opposed  the  schemes  of  the 
"Great  Admiral"  and  his  son  Diego  Columbus. 
We  shall  presently  see  how  this  influential  eccle- 
siastic was  able  to  thwart  Balboa  when  governor 
of  Darien. 


I58     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

Velasquez  was  now  determined  to  wreak  his 
revenge  upon  Cortes  without  waiting  longer  for 
assistance  from  Spain.  He  prepared  an  expedi- 
tion of  eighteen  ships  with  eighty  horsemen,  800 
infantry,  120  crossbowmen,  and  twelve  pieces  of 
artillery.  To  command  these  Velasquez  chose  a 
hidalgo  named  Narvaez,  who  had  assisted  for- 
merly in  subduing  Cuba  and  Hispaniola.  The 
personal  appearance  of  Narvaez,  as  given  by 
Diaz,  is  worth  quoting: 

He  was  tall,  stout-limbed,  with  a  large  head  and  red 
beard,  an  agreeable  presence,  a  voice  deep  and  sonorous, 
as  if  it  rose  from  a  cavern.  He  was  a  good  horseman  and 
valiant. 

Meanwhile  Cortes  persuaded  Montezuma  that 
some  friends  from  Spain  had  arrived  at  Vera 
Cruz,  and  therefore  got  permission  to  leave  him 
and  the  capital  in  charge  of  Alvarado  and  a  small 
garrison.  Montezuma,  in  his  royal  litter,  borne 
on  the  shoulders  of  his  Aztec  nobles,  accom- 
panied the  Spanish  general  to  the  southern  cause- 
way. 

When  Cortes  was  within  fifteen  leagues'  dis- 
tance of  Zempoalla,  where  Narvaez  was  en- 
camped, the  latter  sent  a  message  that  if  his  au- 
thority were  acknowledged  he  would  supply  ships 
to  Cortes  and  his  army  so  that  all  who  wished 
might  freely  leave  the  country  with  all  their  prop- 
erty. 

Cortes,  however,  with  his  usual  astuteness,  re- 
plied: "If  Narvaez  bears  a  royal  commission  I 
will  readily  submit  to  him.  But  he  has  produced 
none.  He  is  a  deputy  of  my  rival,  Velasquez. 
For  myself,  I  am  a  servant  of  the  King;  I  have 


CORTES  AND  MONTEZUMA  159 

conquered  the  country  for  him;  and  for  him  I 
and  my  brave  followers  will  defend  it  to  the  last 
drop  of  our  blood.  If  we  fall  it  will  be  glory 
enough  to  have  perished  in  the  discharge  of  our 
duty/' 

Narvaez  and  his  army  were  meantime  spend- 
ing their  time  frivolously ;  and  when  the  actual 
attack  was  begun  in  the  dead  of  night,  under  a 
pouring  rain-storm,  it  appeared  that  only  two  sen- 
tinels were  on  guard.  Narvaez,  badly  wounded, 
was  taken  prisoner  on  the  top  of  a  teocalli;  and 
in  a  very  short  time  his  army  was  glad  to  capitu- 
late. The  horse-soldiers  whom  Narvaez  had  sent 
to  waylay  one  of  the  roads  to  Zempoalla,  rode  in 
soon  after  to  tender  their  submission.  The  vic- 
torious general,  seated  in  a  chair  of  state,  with  a 
richly  embroidered  Mexican  mantle  on  his  shoul- 
ders, received  his  congratulations  from  the  officers 
and  soldiers  of  both  armies.  Narvaez  and  sev- 
eral others  were  led  in  chains. 

Cortes  not  only  defeated  Narvaez,  but,  after 
the  battle,  enlisted  under  his  standard  the  Span- 
ish soldiers  who  had  been  sent  to  attack  him — • 
reminding  one  of  the  "magnetism"  of  Hannibal 
or  Napoleon,  and  the  consequent  enthusiasm 
caused  by  mere  presence,  looks,  and  words. 

Before  the  rejoicings  were  finished,  however, 
tidings  were  brought  to  Cortes  from  the  Mexican 
capital  that  the  whole  city  was  in  a  state  of  re- 
volt against  Alvarado.  On  his  march  back  to  the 
great  plateau  Cortes  found  the  inhabitants  of 
Tlascala  still  friendly  and  willing  to  assist  as 
allies  in  the  struggle  against  their  ancient  foes, 
the  Mexicans.  On  reaching  the  camp  of  the  Span- 
iards in  Mexico,  Cortes  found  that  Alvarado  had 


160     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

provoked  the  insurrection  by  a  massacre  of  the 
Aztec  populace. 

Having  entered  the  precincts  with  his  army, 
Cortes  at  once  made  anxious  preparations  for  the 
siege  which  was  threatened  by  the  Aztecs,  now 
assembling  in  thousands. 

As  the  assailants  approached  "they  set  up  a 
hideous  yell,  or  rather  that  shrill  whistle  used  in 
fight  by  the  nations  of  Anahuac,"  accompanied  by 
the  sound  of  shell  and  atabal  and  their  other  rude 
instruments  of  wild  music.  This  was  followed 
by  a  tempest  of  missiles,  stones,  darts,  and  arrows. 
The  Spaniards  waited  until  the  foremost  column 
had  arrived  within  distance,  when  a  general  dis- 
charge of  artillery  and  muskets  swept  the  ranks 
of  the  assailants.  Never  till  now  had  the  Mexi- 
cans witnessed  the  murderous  power  of  these 
formidable  engines.  At  first  they  stood  aghast, 
but  soon  rallying,  they  rushed  forward  over  the 
prostrate  bodies  of  their  comrades. 

Pressing  on,  some  of  them  tried  to  scale  the 
parapet,  while  others  tried  to  force  a  breach  in  it. 
When  the  parapet  proved  too  strong  they  shot 
burning  arrows  upon  the  wooden  outworks. 

Next  day  there  were  continually  fresh  supplies 
of  warriors  added  to  the  forces  of  the  assailants, 
so  that  the  danger  of  the  situation  was  greatly 
increased.  Diaz,  an  onlooker,  thus  wrote: 

The  Mexicans  fought  with  such  ferocity  that  if  we  had 
been  assisted  by  10,000  Hectors  and  as  many  Orlandos, 
we  should  have  made  no  impression  on  them  There  were 
several  of  our  troops  who  had  served  in  the  Italian  wars, 
but  neither  there  nor  in  the  battles  with  the  Turks  had  they 
ever  seen  anything  like  the  desperation  shown  by  these 
Indians. 


CORTES  AND  MONTEZUMA  l6l 

Cortes  at  last  drew  off  his  men  and  sounded  a 
retreat,  taking  refuge  in  the  fortress.  The  Mexi- 
cans encamped  round  it,  and  during  the  night  in- 
sulted the  besieged,  shouting,  "The  gods  have  at 
last  delivered  you  into  our  hands :  the  stone  of 
sacrifice  is  ready:  the  knives  are  sharpened." 

Cortes  now  felt  that  he  had  not  fully  under- 
stood the  character  of  the  Mexicans.  The  pa- 
tience and  submission  formerly  shown  in  defer- 
ence to  the  injured  Montezuma  was  now  replaced 
by  concentrated  arrogance  and  ferocity.  The 
Spanish  general  even  stooped  to  request  the  inter- 
position of  the  Aztec  Emperor ;  and,  at  last,  when 
assured  that  the  foreigners  would  leave  his  coun- 
try if  a  way  were  opened  through  the  Mexican 
army  he  agreed  to  use  his  influence.  For  this 
purpose 

he  put  on  his  imperial  robes;  his  mantle  of  white  and  blue 
3owed  over  his  shoulders,  held  together  by  its  rich  clasp  of 
the  green  chalchivitl.  The  same  precious  gem,  with  emer- 
alds of  uncommon  size,  set  in  gold,  profusely  ornamented 
other  parts  of  his  dress.  His  feet  were  shod  with  the  golden 
sandals,  and  his  brows  covered  with  the  Mexican  diadem, 
resembling  in  form  the  pontifical  tiara.  Thus  attired  and 
surrounded  by  a  guard  of  Spaniards,  and  several  Aztec 
nobles,  and  preceded  by  the  golden  wand,  the  symbol  of 
sovereignty,  the  Indian  monarch  ascended  the  central 
turret  of  the  palace. 

At  the  sight  of  Montezuma  all  the  Mexican 
army  became  silent,  partly,  no  doubt,  from  curi- 
osity. He  assured  them  that  he  was  no  prisoner ; 
that  the  strangers  were  his  friends,  and  would 
leave  Mexico  of  their  own  accord  as  soon  as  a 
way  was  opened. 
ii 


162     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

To  call  himself  a  friend  of  the  hateful  Span- 
iards was  a  fatal  argument.  Instead  of  respecting 
their  monarch,  though  in  his  official  robes,  the 
populace  howled  angry  curses  at  him  as  a  de- 
generate Aztec,  a  coward,  no  longer  a  warrior  or 
even  a  man ! 

A  cloud  of  missiles  was  hurled  at  Montezuma, 
and  he  was  struck  to  the  ground  by  the  blow  of 
a  stone  on  his  head.  The  unfortunate  monarch 
only  survived  his  wounds  for  a  few  days,  disdain- 
ing to  take  any  nourishment,  or  to  receive  advice 
from  the  Spanish  priests. 

Meanwhile,  Cortes  and  his  army  met  with  an 
unexpected  danger.  A  large  body  of  the  Indian 
warriors  had  taken  possession  of  the  great  tem- 
ple, at  a  short  distance  from  the  Spanish  quar- 
ters. From  this  commanding  position  they  kept 
shooting  a  deadly  flight  of  arrows  on  the  Span- 
iards. Cortes  sent  his  chamberlain,  Escobar,  with 
a  body  of  men  to  storm  the  temple,  but,  after 
three  efforts,  the  party  had  to  relinquish  the  at- 
tempt. Cortes  himself  then  led  a  storming  party, 
and  after  some  determined  fighting  reached  the 
platform  at  the  top  of  the  temple  where  the  two 
sanctuaries  of  the  Aztec  deities  stood.  This  large 
area  was  now  the  scene  of  a  desperate  battle, 
fought  in  sight  of  the  whole  capital  as  well  as  of 
the  Spanish  troops  still  remaining  in  the  court- 
yard. 

This  struggle  between  such  deadly  enemies 
caused  dreadful  carnage  on  both  sides : 

The  edge  of  the  area  was  unprotected  by  parapet  or  bat- 
tlement; and  the  combatants,  as  they  struggled  in  mortal 
agony,  were  sometimes  seen  to  roll  over  the  sheer  sides  of 


CORTES   AND   MONTEZUMA  163 

the  precipice  together.  Cortes  himself  had  a  narrow  escape 
from  this  dreadful  fate.  .  .  .  The  number  of  the  enemy 
was  double  that  of  the  Christians;  but  the  invulnerable 
armor  of  the  Spaniard,  his  sword  of  matchless  temper,  and 
his  skill  in  the  use  of  it,  gave  him  advantages  which  far  out- 
Weighed  the  odds  of  physical  strength  and  numbers. 

This  unparalleled  scene  of  bloodshed  lasted  for 
three  hours.  Of  the  Mexicans  "two  or  three 
priests  only  survived  to  be  led  away  in  triumph" ; 
yet  the  loss  of  the  Spaniards  was  serious  enough, 
amounting  to  forty-five  of  their  best  men.  Nearly 
all  the  others  were  wounded,  some  seriously. 

After  dragging  the  uncouth  monster,  Huitzilo- 
pochtli,  from  his  sanctuary,  the  assailants  hurled 
the  repulsive  image  down  the  steps  of  the  temple, 
and  then  set  fire  to  the  building.  The  same 
evening  they  burned  a  large  part  of  the  town. 

Cortes  now  resolved  upon  a  night  retreat  from 
the  capital ;  but  when  marching  along  one  of  the 
causeways  they  were  attacked  by  the  Mexicans  in 
such  numbers  that,  when  morning  dawned,  the 
shattered  battalion  was  reduced  to  less  than  half 
its  number.  In  after  years  that  disastrous  retreat 
was  known  to  the  Spanish  chroniclers  as  Noche 
Triste,  the  "Night  of  Sorrows." 

After  a  hurried  six  days'  march  before  the 
pursuers,  Cortes  gained  a  victory  so  signal  that 
an  alliance  was  speedily  formed  with  Tlascala 
against  Mexico.  Cortes  built  twelve  brigantines 
at  Vera  Cruz  in  order  to  secure  the  command  of 
Lake  Tescuco  and  thus  attempt  the  reduction  of 
the  Mexican  capital.  On  his  return  to  the  great 
lake  he  found  that  the  throne  was  now  occupied 
by  Guatimozin,  a  nephew  of  Montezuma.  Using 
their  brigantines  the  Spanish  soldiers  now  began 


a  64     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

the  siege  of  Mexico — "the^most  memorable  event 
in  the  conquest  of  America."  It  lasted  seventy- 
iive  days,  during  which  the  whole  of  the  capital 
was  reduced  to  ruins.  Guatimozin,  the  last  of  the 
Aztec  emperors,  was  condemned  by  the  Spanish 
.general  to  be  hanged  on  the  charge  of  treason. 

Cortes  was  now  master  of  all  Mexico.  The 
Spanish  court  and  people  were  full  of  admiration 
for  his  victories  and  the  extent  of  his  conquests ; 
.and  Charles  V  appointed  him  "Captain-General 
.and  Governor  of  New  Spain."  On  revisiting  Eu- 
rope, the  Emperor  honored  him  with  the  order 
of  St.  Jago  and  the  title  of  marquis.  Latterly, 
however,  after  some  failures  in  his  exploring  ex- 
ditions,  Cortes,  on  his  return  to  Spain,  found 
"himself  treated  with  neglect.  It  was  then,  accord- 
ing to  Voltaire's  story,  that  when  Charles  asked 
the  courtiers,  "Who  is  that  man?"  referring  to 
Cortes,  the  latter  said  aloud :  "It  is  one,  sire,  that 
has  added  more  provinces  to  your  dominions  than 
any  other  governor  has  added  towns !"  Cortes 
•died  in  his  sixty-second  year,  December  2,  1547. 


CHAPTER    VIII 
BALBOA  AND   THE  ISTHMUS 

IN  the  Spanish  conquest  of  America  there  are 
three  great  generals :  Cortes,  Balbao,  and  Pizarro. 
The  third  may  to  many  readers  seem  immeasur- 
ably superior  as  explorer  and  conqueror  to  the 
second,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  Pizarro's 
scheme  of  discovering  and  invading  Peru  was 
precisely  that  which  Balboa  had  already  pre- 


BALBOA  AND   THE   ISTHMUS  165. 

pared.  Pizarro  could  afford  to  say,  "Others  have 
labored,  and  I  have  merely  entered  into  their 
labors." 

What,  then,  was  the  work  done  by  Balboa,  and 
what  prevented  him  from  taking  Peru?  In  1510, 
the  year  before  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  Balboa  was 
glad  to  escape  from  Hispaniola,  not  to  avoid  the 
Spanish  cruelties,  like  Hatuey,  the  luckless  ca- 
zique,  but  to  escape  from  his  Spanish  creditors.. 
So  anxious  was  he  to  get  on  board  that  he  con- 
cealed himself  in  a  cask  to  avoid  observation. 
Balboa,  however,  had  administrative  qualities,, 
and  after  taking  possession  of  the  uncleared  dis- 
trict of  Darien  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain, 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  new  province. 
He  built  the  town  Santa  Maria  on  the  coast  of 
the  Darien  Gulf ;  but  so  pestilential  was  the  dis- 
trict (and  still  is)  that  the  settlers  were  glad  after 
a  short  time  to  remove  to  the  other  side  of  the 
isthmus. 

It  was  by  mere  accident  that  Balboa  first  heard 
of  a  great  ocean  beyond  the  mountains  of  Darien, 
and  of  the  enormous  wealth  of  Peru,  a  country 
hitherto  unknown  to  Spain  or  Europe.  As  sev- 
eral soldiers  were  one  day  disputing  about  the 
division  of  some  gold-dust,  an  Indian  cazique 
called  out : 

"Why  quarrel  about  such  a  trifle  ?  I  can  show 
you  a  region  where  the  commonest  pots  and  pans 
are  made  of  that  metal." 

To  the  inquiries  of  Balboa  and  his  companions, 
the  cazique  replied  that  by  traveling  six  days  to 
the  south  they  should  see  another  ocean,  near 
which  lay  the  wealthy  kingdom. 

Resolving  to  cross  the  isthmus,  notwithstand- 


1 66     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

ing  a  thousand  formidable  obstructions,  Balboa 
formed  a  party  consisting  of  190  veterans,  accom- 
panied by  1,000  Indians,  and  several  fierce  dogs 
trained  to  hunt  the  naked  natives.  Such  were 
the  difficulties  that  the  "six  days'  journey"  occu- 
pied twenty-five  before  the  ridge  of  the  isthmus 
range  was  reached. 

Balboa  commanded  his  men  to  halt,  and  advanced  alone 
to  the  summit,  that  he  might  be  the  first  who  should  enjoy 
a  spectacle  which  he  had  so  long  desired.  As  soon  as  he 
beheld  the  sea  stretching  in  endless  prospect  below  him  he 
fell  on  his  knees;  .  .  .  his  followers  observing  his  trans- 
ports of  joy  rushed  forward  to  join  in  his  wonder,  exulta- 
tion, and  gratitude. 

That  was  the  moment,  September  25,  1513, 
immortalized  in  Keats's  sonnet: 

When  with  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific,  and  all  his  men 
Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise, 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien. 

Balboa  hurried  down  the  western  slope  of  the 
isthmus  range  to  take  formal  possession  in  the 
name  of  the  Spanish  monarch.  He  found  a  fish- 
ing village  there  which  had  been  named  Panama 
(i.  e.,  "plenty  fish")  by  the  Indians,  but  had  also 
a  reputation  for  the  pearls  found  in  its  bay. 

In  his  letter  to  Spain,  Balboa  said,  to  illustrate 
the  difficulties  of  the  expedition,  that  of  all  the 
190  men  in  his  party  there  were  never  more  than 
eighty  fit  for  service  at  one  time.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  wonderful  news  of  the  discovery  of  the 
"great  southern  ocean,"  as  the  Pacific  was  then 
called,  Ferdinand  overlooked  the  great  services 


BALBOA  AND  THE  ISTHMUS  1 67 

of  Balboa,  and  appointed  a  new  Governor  of 
Darien  called  Pedrarias,  who  instituted  a  judicial 
inquiry  into  some  previous  transactions  of  Bal- 
boa, imposing  a  heavy  fine  as  punishment.  The 
new  governor  committed  other  acts  of  great  im- 
prudence, and  at  length  Ferdinand  felt  that  he 
had  only  superseded  the  most  active  and  experi- 
enced officer  he  had  in  the  New  World.  To  make 
amends  to  Balboa,  he  was  appointed  ''Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  the  Countries  upon  the  South  Sea," 
with  great  privileges  and  authority.  At  the  same 
time  Pedrarias  was  commanded  to  "support  Bal- 
boa in  all  his  operations,  and  to  consult  with  him 
concerning  every  measure  which  he  himself  pur- 
sued." 

Balboa,  in  1517,  began  his  preparations  for 
entering  the  South  Sea  and  conveying  troops 
to  the  country  which  he  proposed  to  invade. 
With  four  small  brigantines  and  300  chosen 
soldiers  (a  force  superior  to  that  with  which 
Pizarro  afterward  undertook  the  same  expedi- 
tion), he  was  on  the  point  of  sailing  toward  the 
coasts  of  which  they  had  such  expectations,  when 
a  message  arrived  from  Pedrarias.  Balboa  being 
unconscious  of  crime,  agreed  to  delay  the  expedi- 
tion, and  meet  Pedrarias  for  conference.  On 
entering  the  palace  Balboa  was  arrested  and  im- 
mediately tried  on  the  charge  of  disloyalty  to  the 
King  and  intention  of  revolt  against  the  gov- 
ernor. He  was  speedily  sentenced  to  death,  al- 
though the  accusation  was  so  absurd  that  the 
judges  who  pronounced  the  sentence  "seconded 
by  the  whole  colony,  interceded  warmly  for  his 
pardon."  "The  Spaniards  beheld  with  astonish- 
ment and  sorrow  the  public  execution  of  a  man 


1 68     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

whom  they  universally  deemed  more  capable  than 
any  who  had  borne  command  in  America,  of 
forming  and  accomplishing  great  designs."  This 
gross  injustice  amounting  to  a  public  scandal  was 
accounted  for  by  the  malignant  influence  of  the 
Bishop  of  Burgos,  in  Spain,  who  was  the  orig- 
inal cause  of  Balboa  being  superseded  as  Gov- 
ernor of  Darien. 

The  expedition  designed  by  Balboa  was  now 
relinquished ;  but  the  removal  of  the  colony  soon 
afterward  to  the  Pacific  side  of  the  isthmus  may 
be  considered  a  step  toward  the  realization  of  an 
•exactly  similar  attempt  by  Pizzaro. 

To  some  historical  readers  the  word  "Darien" 
only  recalls  the  bitter  prejudice  entertained 
against  William  III,  our  "Dutch  King,"  notwith- 
standing the  special  pleading  of  Lord  Macaulay 
and  others.  Some  Scottish  merchants  had 
adopted  a  scheme  recommended  by  the  most 
reliable  authorities  *  of  that  age,  viz.,  the  settle- 
ment of  a  half-commercial,  half-military  colony 
•on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  isthmus.  Such  a 
company,  in  the  words  of  Paterson,  would  be 
masters  of  the  "door  of  the  seas,"  and  the  "key 
of  the  universe."  The  East  India  Companies 
l)oth  of  England  and  Holland  showed  an  envious 
jealousy  of  the  Scottish  merchants,  and  therefore 
no  assistance  was  to  be  expected  from  the  King, 
although  he  had  given  his  royal  sanction  to  the 
Scots  Act  of  Parliament  creating  the  company. 
The  Scottish  people,  however,  zealously  contin- 
ued the  scheme.  Some  1,200  men  "set  sail  from 

*  E.g.,  Paterson,  founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  Fletcher 
of  Saltoun,  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  then  chief  Minister  of 
Scotland,  Sir  John  Dalrymple,  etc. 


BALBOA  AND  THE  ISTHMUS  169. 

Leith  amid  the  blessings  of  many  thousands  of 
their  assembled  countrymen.  They  reached  the 
Gulf  of  Darien  in  safety,  and  established  them- 
selves on  the  coast  in  localities  to  which  they  gave 
the  names  of  New  Caledonia  and  New  St.  An- 
drews." The  Government  of  Spain  (secretly  in- 
stigated, it  was  believed,  by  the  English  King) 
resolved  to  attack  the  embryo  colony.  The  ship- 
wreck of  the  whole  scheme  soon  followed,  due 
undoubtedly  more  to  the  jealousy  of  the  English 
merchants  (who  believed  that  any  increase  of 
trade  in  Scotland  or  Ireland  was  a  positive  loss 
to  England)  and  the  bad  faith  of  our  Dutch  King,, 
than  to  all  other  causes  whatever.  Of  the  colony, 
according  to  Dalrymple  (ii,  103),  not  more  than 
thirty  ever  saw  their  own  country  again. 

In  1526  a  company  of  English  merchants  was 
formed  to  trade  with  the  West  Indies  and  the 
"Spanish  Main,"  and  commanded  great  success. 
Other  merchants  did  the  same.  Soon  after  the 
Spanish  court  instituted  a  coast-guard  to  make 
war  upon  these  traders ;  and  as  they  had  full 
power  to  capture  and  slay  all  who  did  not  bear 
the  King  of  Spain's  commission,  there  were  ter- 
rible tales  told  in  Europe  of  mutilation,  torture, 
and  revenge.  The  Windward  Islands  having 
been  gradually  settled  by  French  and  English 
adventurers,  Frederick  of  Toledo  was  sent  with  a 
large  fleet  to  destroy  those  petty  colonies.  This 
harsh  treatment  rendered  the  planters  desperate, 
and  under  the  name  of  buccaneers,*  they  con- 
tinued "a  retaliation  so  horribly  savage  [v.  Notes 

*  Named  from  boucan,  a  kind  of  preserved  meat,  used  by 
those  rovers.  They  had  learned  this  peculiar  art  of  preserving 
from  the  native  Caribs. 


1 70     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

to  Rokeby]  that  the  perusal  makes  the  reader 
shudder.  From  piracy  at  sea,  they  advanced  to 
making  predatory  descents  on  the  Spanish  terri- 
tories ;  in  which  they  displayed  the  same  furious 
and  irresistible  valor,  the  same  thirst  of  spoil, 
and  the  same  brutal  inhumanity  to  their  cap- 
tives." The  pride  and  presumption  of  Spain 
were  partly  resisted  by  the  English  monarchs,  but 
not  with  real  effect  before  the  time  of  Cromwell, 
strongest  of  all  the  rulers  of  Britain.  Under  his 
government  of  the  seas  Spain  was  deprived  of 
the  island  of  Jamaica  ;  and  the  buccaneers  to  their 
disgust  found  that  the  flag  of  the  great  Protector 
was  a  check  against  all  piracy  and  injustice. 

Under  Charles  II,  however,  the  buccaneers  re- 
sumed their  conflict  with  the  Spanish,  and  in 
1670,  Henry  Morgan,  with  1,500  English  and 
French  ruffians  resolved  to  cross  the  isthmus 
like  Balboa,  to  plunder  the  depositories  of  gold 
and  silver  which  lay  in  the  city  of  Panama  and 
other  places  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Having  stormed 
a  strong  fortress  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres 
River,  they  forced  their  way  through  the  en- 
tangled forests  for  ten  days,  and  after  much 
hardship  reached  Panama,  to  find  it  defended  by 
a  regular  army  of  twice  their  number.  The 
Spaniards,  however,  were  beaten,  and  Morgan 
thoroughly  sacked  and  plundered  the  city,  taking 
captive  all  the  chief  citizens  in  order  to  extort 
afterward  large  ransoms. 

Ten  years  afterward  the  Isthmus  of  Darien 
was  crossed  by  Dampier,  another  celebrated  buc- 
caneer, but  his  party  was  too  small  to  attack 
Panama.  They  seized  some  Spanish  vessels  in 
the  bay  and  plundered  all  the  coast  for  some  dis- 


BALBOA  AND   THE   ISTHMUS  I?l 

tance.  The  following1  description  by  the  bold 
buccaneer  is  not  without  interest  to  those  who 
consider  the  present  importance  of  the  place : 

Near  the  riverside  stands  New  Panama,  a  very  hand- 
some city,  in  a  spacious  bay  of  the  same  name,  into  which 
disembogue  many  long  and  navigable  rivers,  some  whereof 
are  not  without  gold;  besides  that  it  is  beautified  by  many 
pleasant  isles,  the  country  about  it  affording  a  delightful 
prospect  to  the  sea.  .  ,  .  The  houses  are  chiefly  of  brick 
and  pretty  lofty,  especially  the  president's,  the  churches, 
the  monasteries,  and  other  public  structures,  which  make 
the  best  show  I  have  seen  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  present  prosperity  of  Panama  is  due  to 
its  large  transit  trade,  which  was  recently  esti- 
mated at  £15,000,000  a  year.  The  pearl-fisheries, 
famous  at  the  time  of  Balboa's  visit,  have  now 
little  value.  The  narrowest  breadth  of  the  isth- 
mus being  only  thirty  miles,  there  have  naturally 
been  many  engineering  proposals  to  connect  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans  by  a  canal.  M.  de 
Lesseps  founded  a  French  company  in  1881  for 
the  construction  of  a  ship-canal  with  eight  locks, 
and  over  forty-six  miles  in  length ;  but  in  1889, 
the  excavations  stopped  after  some  48^/2  millions 
of  cubic  meters  of  earth  and  rock  had  been  re- 
moved. Meanwhile  a  railway  47^2  miles  long 
connects  Colon  on  the  Atlantic  with  Panama  on 
the  Pacific. 

The  Mexican  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  only 
140  miles  across,  separates  the  Bay  of  Cam- 
peachy  from  the  Pacific,  and  failing  the  Panama 
Canal  some  engineers  were  in  favor  of  a  ship- 
railu'ay  for  conveying  large  vessels  bodily  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  scheme  met  with 


I72     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

great  favor  in  the  United  States,  but  has  not  yet 
been  carried  out. 

The  third  proposal  for  connecting  the  two 
great  oceans  is  probably  the  most  feasible  because 
it  follows  the  most  deeply  marked  depression  of 
the  isthmus.  The  Nicaraguan  Ship-canal  will, 
if  the  scheme  be  carried  out,  pass  from  Greytown 
on  the  Atlantic  to  Brito  on  the  Pacific,  about  170 
miles  apart,  through  the  republic  of  Nicaragua, 
which  lies  north  of  Panama  and  south  of  Guate- 
mala. One  obvious  advantage  of  this  ship-canal 
is  that  the  great  lake  is  utilized,  affording  already 
about  one-third  of  the  waterway ;  only  twenty- 
eight  miles,  in  fact,  being  actual  canal,  and  the 
rest  river,  lake,  and  lagoon  navigation.  In  the 
latest  specifications  the  engineers  proposed  to 
dam  up  the  river  (San  Juan)  by  a  stone  wall 
seventy  feet  high  and  1,900  feet  long,  thus  rais- 
ing the  water  to  a  level  of  106  feet  above  the  sea. 
Only  three  locks  will  be  required  to  work  the 
Nicaraguan  Ship-canal. 


CHAPTER  IX 
EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERU 

§   (A)   Peruvian  Archeology 

As  the  extinct  civilization  of  the  Incas  of  Peru 
is  the  most  important  phase  of  development 
among  all  the  American  races,  so  also  their  pre- 
historic remains  are  extremely  interesting  to  the 
archeologist. 


EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERU        173 

I.  Architecture. — In  the  interior  of  the  country 
we  find  many  remarkable  examples  of  stone  build- 
ing, such  as  walls  of  huge  polygonal  stones,  four- 
sided  or  five-sided  or  six-sided,  some  six  feet 
across,  laid  without  mortar,  and  so  finely  polished 
and  adjusted  that  the  blade  of  a  knife  can  not  be 
inserted  between  them.  The  strength  of  the 
masonry  is  sometimes  assisted  by  having  the 
projecting  parts  of  a  stone  fitting  into  corre- 


Monolith  Doorway.     Near  Lake  Titicaca.     Fig.  X. 

spending  hollows  or  recesses  in  the  stone  above 
or  below  it.  The  stones  being  frequently  ex- 
tremely hard  granite,  or  basalt,  etc.,  antiquarian 
travelers  have  wondered  how  in  early  times  the 
natives  could  have  cut  and  polished  them  without 
any  metal  tools.  The  ordinary  explanation  is 
that  the  work  was  done  by  patiently  rubbing  one 
stone  against  another,  with  the  aid  of  sharp 
sand,  "time  being  no  object"  in  the  case  of  the 
laborers  among  savage  and  primitive  races.  It 
is  believed  by  most  antiquaries  that  long  before 


174    EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE   WEST 

the  period  of  the  Incas  there  was  a  powerful  em- 
pire to  which  we  must  attribute  such  Cyclopean 
ruins;  especially  as  the  construction  and  style 
differ  so  greatly  from  what  is  found  in  the  Inca 
period.  The  huge  stones  occur  at  Tiahuanacu 
(near  Lake  Titicaca),  Cuzco,  Ollantay,  and  the 
altar  of  Concacha.  Fig.  I  is  a  broken  doorway 
at  Tiahuanacu,  composed  of  huge  monoliths. 
Fig.  2  is  an  enlargement  of  an  image  over  the 
doorway  shown  in  Fig.  i.  The  doorway  forms 
the  entrance  to  a  quadrangular  area  (400  yards 
by  350)  surrounded  by  large  stones  standing  on 
end.  The  gateway  or  doorway  of  Fig.  I  is  one 
of  the  most  marvelous  stone  monuments  existing, 
being  one  block  of  hard  rock,  deeply  sunk  in  the 
ground.  The  present  height  is  over  seven  feet. 
The  whole  of  the  inner  side  "from  a  line  level 
with  the  upper  lintel  of  the  doorway  to  the  top" 
is  a  mass  of  sculpture,  "which  speaks  to  us,"  says 
Sir  C.  R.  Markham,  "in  difficult  riddles  of  the 
customs  and  art  culture,  of  the  beliefs  and  tradi- 
tions of  an  ancient"  extinct  civilization. 

The  figure  in  high  relief  above  the  doorway 
(Fig.  2)  is  a  head  surrounded  by  rays,  "each 
terminating  in  a  circle  or  the  head  of  an  animal." 
Six  human  heads  hang  from  the  girdle,  and  two 
more  from  the  elbows.  Each  hand  holds  a 
scepter  terminating  at  the  lower  end  with  the 
head  of  a  condor — that  huge  American  vulture 
familiar  to  the  Peruvians.  That  bird  of  prey  was 
probably  an  emblem  of  royalty  to  the  prehistoric 
dynasty  now  long  forgotten. 

Some  older  historians  speak  of  richly  carved 
statues  which  formerly  stood  in  this  enclosure, 
and  "many  cylindrical  pillars."  Of  the  masonry 


Image  over  the  doorway  shown  in  Fig.  i. 
Near  Lake  Titicaca.    Fig.  2. 


176     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE   WEST 

of  these  ruins  generally,  Squier  says :  "The  stone 
is  faced  with  a  precision  that  no  skill  can  excel, 
its  right  angles  turned  with  an  accuracy  that  the 
most  careful  geometer  could  not  surpass.  I  do 
not  believe  there  exists  a  better  piece  of  stone- 
cutting,  the  material  considered,  on  this  or  the 
other  continent." 

The  fortress  above  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the 
Incas,  is  considered  the  grandest  monument  of 
extinct  American  civilization.  "Like  the  Pyra- 
mids and  the  Coliseum,  it  is  imperishable.  .  .  . 
A  fortified  work,  600  yards  in  length,  built  of 
gigantic  stones,  in  three  lines,  forming  walls  sup- 
porting terraces  and  parapets.  .  .  .  The  stones 
are  of  blue  limestone,  of  enormous  size  and  ir- 
regular in  shape,  but  fitted  into  each  other  with 
rare  precision.  One  stone  is  twenty-seven  feet 
high  by  fourteen ;  and  others  fifteen  feet  high  by 
twelve  are  common  throughout  the  work/' 

In  all  the  architecture  of  the  prehistoric  Peru- 
Avians  the  true  arch  is  not  found,  though  there 
is  an  approach  to  the  "Maya  arch,"  formerly  de- 
scribed, finishing  the  doorway  overhead  by  over- 
lapping stones. 

The  immense  fortresses  of  Ollantay  and  Pisac 
are  really  hills  which,  by  means  of  encircling 
walls,  have  been  transformed  into  immense  pyra- 
mids with  many  terraces  rising  above  each 
other.  All  large  buildings,  such  as  temples  and 
palaces,  were  laid  out  to  agree  with  the  "cardinal 
points,"  the  principal  entrance  always  facing  the 
rising  sun.  The  tomb  construction  of  the  an- 
cient Peruvians  has  been  already  noticed  (v. 
chap.  iv). 

To  the  south   of  Cuzco  are   the   ruins   of  a 


EXTINCT   CIVILIZATION   OF  PERU         177 

temple,  Cacha,  which  is  considered  to  be  of  a 
date  between  the  Cyclopean  structures  already 
described  and  the  Inca  architecture.  The  chief 
part  is  no  yards  long",  built  of  wrought  stones; 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  building  from  end  to 
end  runs  a  wall  pierced  by  twelve  high  doorways. 
There  were  also  two  series  of  pillars  which  had 
formerly  supported  a  floor. 

Those  traces  of  the  Cyclopean  builders  point 
to  an  extremely  early  date,  but  several  students 
of  the  Peruvian  antiquities  point  confidently  to 
distinct  evidence  of  a  still  more  primitive  race — 
to  be  compared,  perhaps,  with  those  builders  of 
"Druidic  monuments"  whom  it  is  now  the  fash- 
ion to  call  "neolithic  men."  Some  "cromlechs" 
or  burial-places  have  been  found  in  Bolivia  and 
other  parts  of  Peru ;  and  in  many  respects  they 
are  parallel  to  the  stone  monuments  found  in 
Great  Britain  as  well  as  Brittany  and  other  parts 
of  Europe.  Some  of  those  Peruvian  cromlechs 
consist  of  four  great  slabs  of  slate,  each  about 
five  feet  high,  four  or  five  in  width,  and  more 
than  an  inch  thick.  A  fifth  is  placed  over  them. 
Over  the  whole  a  pyramid  of  clay  and  rough 
stones  is  piled.  Possibly  that  race  of  cromlech 
builders  bore  the  same  relation  to  the  temple 
builders  described  above  that  the  builders  of 
Kits  Coty  House,  between  Rochester  and  Maid- 
stone,  bore  to  the  temple  builders  of  Stonehenge 
on  Salisbury  Plain.  If  they  had  to  retreat,  as 
the  ice-sheet  was  driven  farther  from  the  torrid 
zone,  then  by  the  theory  of  the  Glacial  Period 
the  Cromlech  men  in  both  cases  would  at  last  be 
simply  Eskimos. 

2.  Aqueducts. — The  ancient  Peruvians  at- 
12 


I?8     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

tained  great  skill  in  the  distribution  of  water — 
especially  for  irrigation.  Artificial  lakes  or  res- 
ervoirs were  formed7  so  that  by  damming  up  the 
streams  in  the  rainy  season  a  good  supply  was 
created  for  the  dry  season.  Some  great  monu- 
ments still  remain  of  their  hydraulic  engineer- 
ing, such  as  extensive  cisterns,  solid  dikes  along 
the  rivers  to  prevent  overflow,  tunnels,  to  drain 
lakes  during  an  oversupply,  and,  in  some  places, 
artificiaj_cascades. 

3.  Roads  and  Bridges. — The  roads  and  high- 
ways  of  the   Incas  were  so  excellent  that  "in 
many  places  they  still  offer  by  far  the  most  con- 
venient avenues  of  transit.    They  are  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  feet  in  width,  bedded  with  small 
stones  often  laid  in   concrete.     As   the  use  of 
beasts  of  burden  was  almost  unknown,  the  roads 
did  not  ascend  a  steep  inclination  by  zigzags  but 
by  steps  cut  in  the  rock.     At  certain  distances 
public._  shelters  were  erected  for  travelers,  and 
some  of  these  still  offer  the  best  lodging-houses 
to  be  found  along  the  routes.     Bridges  were  of 
wood,  of  ropes  made  from  maguey  fiber,  or  of 
stone.     Some  of  the  latter  are  still  in  excellent 
condition,  in  spite  of  the  violence  of  the  moun- 
tain torrents  which  they  have  spanned  for  four 
centuries. 

4.  Sculpture. — The  Maya  race  of  Yucatan  and 
Central  America  were  much  superior  to  the  pre- 
historic Peruvians  in  stone   sculpture.     Except 
those  examples  already  referred  to  under  I,  their 
artists  have  apparently  produced  nothing  to  show 
skill  in  workmanship,  much  less  fertility  of  imag- 
ination.   That  is  largely  explained  by  their  lack 
of  suitable  tools. 


EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERU        1 79 

5.  Goldsmith's  Work. — In  this  branch  of  art 
the  ancient  Peruvians  greatly  excelled,  especially 
in  inlaying  and  gilding.     Gold-beating  and  gild- 
ing had  been  prosecuted  to  remarkable  delicacy, 
and  the  very  thin  layers  of  gold-leaf  on  many 
articles  led  the  Spaniards  at  first  to  believe  they 
were  of  the  solid  metal.    These  delicate  layers 
showed  ornamental  designs,  including  birds,  but- 
terflies, and  the  like. 

6.  Pottery. — In  this  department  of  industrial 
art  the  prehistoric  Peruvians  showed  much  apti- 
tude both  "in  regard  to  variety  of  design  and 
technical  skill  in  preparing  the  material.     Vases 
with  pointed  bottoms  and  painted  sides  recalling 
those  of  ancient  Greece  and  Etruria  are  often 
disinterred  along  the  coast."    The  merit  of  those 
artists  lay  in  perfect  imitation  of  natural  objects, ' 
such  as  birds,  fishes,  fruits,  plants,  skulls,  per- 
sons   in    various    positions,    faces    (often    with 
graphic  individuality).     Some   jars  exactly  re- 
sembled the  "magic  vases"  which  are  still  found 
in  Hindustan,  and  can  be  emptied  only  when  held 
at  a  certain  angle. 

7.  Though   ignorant   of   perspective   and   the 
rules  of  light  and  shade,  these  ancient  Peruvians 
had  an  accurate  eye  for  color.    "Spinning,  weav- 
ing, and  dyeing,"  to  quote  Sir  C.  R.  Markham, 
"were  arts  which  were  sources  of  employment  to 
a  great  number,  owing  to  the  quantity  and  variety 
of  the  fabrics.     .     .    .    There  were  rich  dresses 
interwoven  with  gold  or  made  of  gold  thread; 
fine  woolen  mantles  ornamented  with  borders  of 
small  square  plates  of  gold  and  silver;  colored 
cotton  cloths   worked   in  complicated  patterns ; 
and  fabrics  of  aloe  fiber  and  sheep's  sinews  for 


l8o     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

breeches.    Coarser  cloths  of  llama  wool  were  also 
made  in  vast  quantities. 

8.  The  quipu  (i  e.,  "knot"). — Without  writing 
or  even  any  of  the  simpler  forms  of  pictographs 
which  some  Indian  races  inferior  to  them  in  re- 
finement had  invented,  the  Peruvians  had  no 
means  of  sending  a  message  relating  to  tribute  or 
the  number  of  warriors  in  an  army,  or  a  date, 


The  Quipu. 

except  the  quipu.  It  consisted  of  one  principal 
cord  about  two  feet  long  held  horizontally,  to 
which  other  cords  of  various  colors  and  lengths 
were  attached,  hanging  vertically.  The  knots  on 
the  vertical  cords,  and  their  various  lengths 
served  by  means  of  an  arranged  code  to  convey 
certain  words  and  phrases.  Each  color  and  each 
knot  had  so  many  conventional  significations; 
thus  white  =  silver,  green  =  corn,  yellow  =. 


EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION  OF  PERU         181 

gold ;  but  in  another  quipu,  white  =  peace,  red  = 
war,  soldiers,  etc.  The  quipu  was  originally  only 
a  means  of  numeration  and  keeping  accounts, 
thus : 


a  single  knot  =:  10 
a  double  "  •=.  100 
a  triple  "  — 1,000 


two  singles    =    20 
two   doubles  —  200 
etc. 


9.  The   great  stone   monuments   described  in 
our   first    section   belonged,   according   to    some 
writers,  to  a  dynasty  called  Pirua,  who  ruled  over 
the  highlands  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  long  before  the 
times  of  the  Incas.     That  early  race  had  as  the 
center  of  their  civilization   the   shores   of  Lake 
Titicaca. 

10.  The  Ancient  Capital. — Cuzco,  the  center  of 
government  till  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  for  a  long  time  the  only  city  in 
the  Peruvian  empire,  deserves  a  paragraph  under 
the  head  archeology.     Its  wonderful  fortress  has 
already  been   referred  to,   and   there   are  other 
Cyclopean  remains,  such  as  the  great  wall  which 
contains  the  "stone  of  twelve  corners."     Some 
monuments  of  the  Inca  period  also  attract  much 
attention,  such   as  the  Curi-cancha  temple,  296 
feet  long,  the   palace   of   Amaru-cancha    (i.   e., 
"place  of  serpents"),  so  called  from  the  serpents 
sculptured  in  relief  on  the  exterior.     Of  these 
and    other    buildings    Squier    remarks    that   the 
"joints  are  of  a  precision  unknown  in  our  archi- 
tecture ;  the  world  has  nothing  to  show  in  the 
way  of  stone-cutting  and  fitting  to  surpass  the 
skill  and  accuracy   displayed  in  the  Inca  struc- 
tures of  Cuzco."     To  obtain  the  site  for  their 
capital  the  Incas  had  to  carry  out  a  great  en- 


1 82     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

gineering  work,  by  confining  two  mountain  tor- 
rents between  walls  of  substantial  masonry  so 
solid  as  to  serve  even  to  modern  times.  The  Val- 
ley of  Cuzco  was  the  source  of  the  Peruvian  civil- 
ization, center  and  origin  of  the  empire.  Hence 
the  name,  Cuzco  =  "navel,"  just  as  the  ancient 
Greeks  called  Athens  umbilicus  terra:,  and  our 


Gold  Ornament  (?  Zodiac)  from  a  Tomb  at  Cuzco. 

New   England  cousins  fondly  refer  to  Boston, 
Mass.,  as  "the  hub  of  the  universe" ! 

§  (B)  Peru  before  the  Arrival  of  the  Spaniards 

The  "national  myth"  of  the  Peruvians  was  that 
at  Lake  Titicaca  two  supernatural  beings  ap- 
peared, both  children  of  the  Sun.  One  was 
Manco  Capac,  the  first  Inca,  who  taught  the 
people  agriculture;  the  other  was  his  wife,  who 


EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION   OF  PERU        183 

taught  the  women  to  spin  and  weave.  From 
them  were  lineally  derived  all  the  Incas.  As 
representing  the  Sun,  the  Inca  was  high  priest 
and  head  of  the  hierarchy,  and  therefore  presided 
at  the  great  religious  festivals.  He  was  the 
source  from  which  everything  flowed — all  dig- 
nity, all  power,  all  emolument.  Louis  le  Mag- 
nifique  when  at  the  height  of  his  power  might 
be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  emperor  Inca:  both 
could  literally  use  the  phrase,  L'etat  c'est  Moi, 
"The  State!  I  am  the  State!" 

In  the  royal  palaces  and  dress  great  barbaric 
pomp  was  assumed.  All  the  apartments  were 
studded  with  gold  and  silver  ornaments. 

The  worship  of  the  Sun,  representing  the 
Creator,  the  Dweller  in  Space,  the  Teacher  and 
Ruler  of  the  Universe,*  was  the  religion  of  the 
Incas  inherited  from  their  distant  ancestry.  The 
great  temple  at  Cuzco,  with  its  gorgeous  display 
of  riches,  was  called  "the  place  of  gold,  the  abode 
of  the  Teacher  of  the  Universe."  An  elliptical 
plate  of  gold  was  fixed  on  the  wall  to  represent 
the  Deity. 

Sufficient  evidence  is  still  visible  of  the  en- 
gineering industry  evinced  by  the  natives  before 
the  arrival  of  Pizarro.  We  give  some  particulars 
of  the  two  principal  highways,  both  joining 
Quito  to  Cuzco,  then  passing  south  to  Chile. 
First,  the  high  level  road,  1,600  miles  in  length, 
crossing  the  great  Peruvian  table-land,  and  con- 
ducted over  pathless  sierras  buried  in  snow ;  with 
galleries  cut  for  leagues  through  the  living  rock, 
rivers  crossed  by  means  of  bridges,  and  ravine? 
of  hideous  depth  filled  up  with  solid  masonry, 

*  According  to  Sir  C.  R.  Markham,  F.  R.  S. 


1 84     EXTINCT   CIVILIZATIONS  OF  THE  WEST 

The  roadway  consisted  of  heavy  flags  of  free- 
stone. Secondly,  the  low  level  highway  along  the 
coast  country  between  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific. 
The  prehistoric  engineers  had  here  to  encounter 
quite  a  different  task.  The  causeway  was  raised 
on  a  high  embankment  of  earth,  with  trees 
planted  along  the  margin.  In  the  strips  of  sandy 
waste,  huge  piles  (many  of  them  to  be  seen  to 
this  day)  were  driven  into  the  ground  to  indi- 
cate the  route. 

Another  colossal  effort  was  the  conveyance  of 
water  to  the  rainless  country  by  the  seacoast, 
especially  to  certain  parts  capable  of  being  re- 
claimed and  made  fertile.  Some  of  the  aqueducts 
were  of  great  length — one  measuring  between 
400  and  500  miles. 

The  following  table  gives  the  Peruvian  calen- 
dar for  a  year: 

I.  Raymi,  the  Festival  of  the  Winter  Solstice, 

in  honor  of  the  Sun      .         .  June  22d. 

Season  of  plowing     .  .  July  22<i. 

Season  of  sowing        .         .        .  August  22d. 

II.  Festival   of   the   Spring   Equinox  September  22d. 

Season  of  brewing     .         .        .  October  22d. 

Commemoration  of  the  Dead     .  November  22d. 

III.  Festival  of  the  Summer  Solstice     .  December  220!. 

Season  of  exercises      .  .      January  22d. 

Season  of  ripening      .        .        .      February  22d. 

IV.  Festival  of  Autumn   Equinox        .      March  220!. 

Beginning   of   harvest        .        .      April  22d. 
Harvesting  month      .        .        .      May  22d. 

Since  Quito  is  exactly  on  the  equator,  the  ver- 
tical rays  of  the  sun  at  noon  during  the  equinox 
cast  no  shadow.  That  northern  capital,  there- 


EXTINCT  CIVILIZATION   OF  PERU        185 

fore,  was  "held  in  especial  veneration  as  the  fa- 
vored abode  of  the  great  deity." 

At  the  feast  of  Raymi,  or  New  Year's  day,  the 
sacrifice  usually  offered  was  that  of  the  llama,  a 
fire  being  kindled  by  means  of  a  concave  mirror 
of  polished  metal  collecting  the  rays  of  the  sun 
into  a  focus  upon  a  quantity  of  dried  cotton. 

The  national  festival  of  the  Aztecs  we  com- 
pared to  the  secular  celebration  of  the  Romans ; 
so  now  the  Raymi  of  the  Peruvians  may  be 
likened  to  the  Panathensea  of  ancient  Athens, 
when  the  people  of  Attica  ascended  in  splendid 
procession  to  the  shrine  on  the  Acropolis. 

In  Mexico  the  Spanish  travelers  often  experi- 
enced severe  famines ;  and  in  India,  even  at  the 
present  day  (to  the  disgrace  perhaps  of  our  man- 
agement) nearly  every  year  many  thousands  die 
of  hunger.  It  was  very  different  under  the  an- 
cient Peruvians,  because  by  law  "the  product  of 
the  lands  consecrated  to  the  Sun,  as  well  as  those 
set  apart  for  the  Incas,  was  deposited  in  the  Tain- 
bos,  or  public  storehouses,  as  a  stated  provision 
for  times  of  scarcity." 

The  Spaniards  found  those  prehistoric  agricul- 
turists utilizing  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  guano 
found  on  all  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  It  was 
not  till  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
the  British  farmer  found  the  value  of  this  fer- 
tilizer. 


1 86     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

CHAPTER  X 
PIZARRO   AND  THE  INCAS 

WHEN  stout-hearted  Balboa  first  reached  the 
summit  of  the  isthmus  range  and  looked  south 
over  the  Bay  of  Panama,  he  might  have  seen 
the  "Silver  Bell,"  which  forms  the  summit  of  the 
mighty  volcano  Chimborazo.  Still  farther  south 
in  the  same  direction  lay  the  "land  of  gold,"  of 
which  he  had  heard. 

Balboa  was  unjustly  prevented  from  exploring 
that  unknown  country,  but  among  the  Spanish 
soldiers  in  Panama  there  were  two  who  de- 
termined to  carry  out  Balboa's  scheme.  The 
younger,  Pizarro,  was  destined  to  rival  Cortes  as 
explorer  and  conqueror;  Almagro,  his  compan- 
ion in  the  expedition,  was  less  crafty  and  cruel. 
Sailing  from  Panama,  the  Spanish  first  landed 
on  the  coast  below  Quito,  and  found  the  natives 
wearing  gold  and  silver  trinkets.  On  a  second 
voyage,  with  more  men,  they  explored  the  coast 
of  Peru  and  visited  Tumbez,  a  town  with  a  lofty 
temple  and  a  palace  for  the  Incas. 

They  beheld  a  country  fully  peopled  and  cultivated;  the 
natives  were  decently  clothed,  and  possessed  of  ingenuity 
so  far  surpassing  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  New  World 
as  to  have  the  use  of  tame  domestic  animals.  But  what 
chiefly  attracted  the  notice  of  the  visitors  was  such  a  show 
of  gold  and  silver,  not  only  in  ornaments,  but  in  several 
vessels  and  utensils  for  common  use,  formed  of  those  pre- 
cious metals  as  left  no  room  to  doubt  that  they  abounded 
with  profusion  in  the  country. 


PIZARRO  AND   THE  INCAS  187 

After  his  return  Pizarro  visited  Spain  and 
secured  the  patronage  of  Charles  V,  who  ap- 
pointed him  Governor  and  Captain-General  of  the 
newly  discovered  country.  In  the  next  voyage 
from  Panama,  Pizarro  set  sail  with  180  soldiers 
in  three  small  ships — "a  contemptible  force  surely 
to  invade  the  great  empire  of  Peru." 

Pizarro  was  very  fortunate  in  the  time  of  his 
arrival,  because  two  brothers  were  fiercely  con- 
tending in  civil  war  to  obtain  the  sovereignty. 
Their  father,  Huana  Capac,  the  twelfth  Inca  in 
succession  from  Alanco  Capac,  had  recently  died 
after  annexing  the  kingdom  of  Quito,  and  thus 
doubling  the  power  of  the  empire.  Pizarro 
made  friends  with  Atahualpa,  who  had  become 
Inca  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  his  brother,  and 
a  friendly  meeting  was  arranged  between  them. 
The  Peruvians  are  thus  described  by  a  Spanish 
onlooker : 

First  of  all  there  arrived  400  men  in  uniform;  the  Inca 
himself,  on  a  couch  adorned  with  plumes,  and  almost  cov- 
ered with  plates  of  gold  and  silver,  enriched  with  precious 
stones,  was  carried  on  the  shoulders  of  his  principal  attend- 
ants. Several  bands  of  singers  and  dancers  accompanied 
the  procession;  and  the  whole  plain  was  covered  with 
troops,  more  than  30,000  men. 

After  engaging  in  a  religious  dispute  with  the 
Inca,  who  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority 
of  the  Pope  and  threw  the  breviary  on  the  ground, 
the  Spanish  chaplain  exclaimed  indignantly  that 
the  Word  of  God  had  been  insulted  by  a  heathen. 

Pizarro  instantly  gave  the  signal  of  assault:  the  martial 
music  struck  up,  the  cannon  and  muskets  began  to  fire,  the 


1 88     EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 

horse  rallied  out  fiercely  to  the  charge,  the  infantry  rushed 
on  sword  in  hand.  The  Peruvians,  astonished  at  the  sud- 
denness of  the  attack,  dismayed  with  the  effect  of  the  fire- 
arms and  the  irresistible  impression  of  the  cavalry,  fled 
with  universal  consternation  on  every  side.  Pizarro,  at 
the  head  of  his  chosen  band,  soon  penetrated  to  the  royal 
seat,  and  seizing  the  Inca  by  the  arm,  carried  him  as  a 
prisoner  to  the  Spanish  quarters. 

For  his  ransom  Atahualpa  agreed  to  pay  a 
weight  of  gold  amounting  to  more  than  five  mil- 
lions sterling. 

Instead  of  keeping  faith  with  the  Inca  by  re- 
storing him  to  liberty,  Pizarro  basely  allowed  him 
to  be  tried  on  several  false  charges  and  con- 
demned to  be  burned  alive. 

After  hearing  of  the  enormous  ransom  many 
Spaniards  hurried  from  Guatemala,  Panama,  and 
Nicaragua  to  share  in  the  newly  discovered  booty 
of  Peru,  the  "land  of  gold."  Pizarro,  therefore, 
being  now  greatly  reenforced  with  soldiers, 
"forced  his  way  to  Cuzco,  the  capital.  The  riches 
found  there  exceeded  in  value  what  had  been  re- 
ceived as  Atahualpa's  ransom. 

As  Governor  of  Peru,  Pizarro  chose  a  new  site 
for  his  capital,  nearer  the  coast  than  Cuzco,  and 
there  founded  Lima.  It  is  now  a  great  center  of 
trade.  Pizarro  lived  here  in  great  state  till  the 
year  1542,  when  his  fate  reached  him  by  means 
of  a  party  of  conspirators  seeking  to  avenge  the1 
death  of  Almagro,  his  former  rival,  whom  he  had 
cruelly  executed  as  a  traitor.  On  Sunday,  June 
26th,  at  midday,  while  all  Lima  was  quiet  under 
the  siesta,  the  conspirators  passed  unobserved 
through  the  two  outer  courts  of  the  palace,  and 
speedily  despatched  the  soldier-adventurer,  in- 


PIZARRO  AND  THE  INCAS  189 

trepidly  defending  himself  with  a  sword  and 
buckler.  "A  deadly  thrust  full  in  the  throat,"  and 
the  tale  of  daring  Pizarro  was  told. 

Raro  antecedentem  sceleslum 
Deseruit  pede  Poena  claudo. 

When 

Did  Doom,  though  lame,  not  bide  its  time, 
To  clutch  the  nape  of  skulking  Crime? 

W  E.  GLADSTONE. 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


AGATHOCLES,  119. 

Agassiz,  73. 

Alfred,  King,  19. 

Almagro,  Pizarro's  rival,  186,  189. 

Alvarado,  158,  159. 

America,  Discoveries  of,  19-35,  38-43 

48-53- 

America,  origin  of  the  name.  50. 
American  Archeology,  71-79  (see  also 

AZTEC,  PERU,  CIVILIZATION). 
Amerigo  (Americusi,  (see  VESPUCCI). 
Anahuac,  56,  58.  63. 
Archeology,  71-88  (see  under  AZTEC, 

MEXICO,  PERU,  and  CIVILIZATION, 

EXTINCT). 

Aristotle,  shape  of  the  earth,  to. 
Arthur,  King,  19. 
Atahualpa.  Inca,  187,  188. 
Atlantic,  ridge,  15. 
Atlantis,  island  or  continent,  14,  15. 
Avalon,  17. 
Aztecs,  their  traditions,  54,  56,  57,  62, 

63- 

Aztecs,  antiquities,  55. 

Aztecs,  kingdom,  58;  empire  founded, 
76. 

Aztecs,  letters,  etc..  58,  79-82. 

Aztecs,  astronomy,  64.  65,  68,  83. 

Aztecs,  human  sacrifices,  59,  60.  62. 
102,  106;  how  explained  by  com- 
parison with  Jews,  Greeks,  Druids, 
etc.,  100-106. 

Aztecs,  priesthood.  65,  67. 

Aztecs,  religion,  92,  93  ;  laws,  90. 

Aztecs,  natural  piety,  66-68. 

Aztecs,  secular  festival,  68-70. 

Aztecs,  soldiery,  91,  92. 

Aztecs,  agriculture,  94. 

Aztecs,  markets,  97,  147. 


Aztecs,  banquets,  social  amusements, 

A  g7,'  "'  t 
Aztlan,  56. 

B. 

BACON,  Roger,  18. 

Bahamas,  41. 

Balboa,  9,  50,  52,  164,  168. 

Balboa  scheme — adopted  by  Pizarro, 

1 86. 
Balboa  hears  of  the  Land  of  Gold, 

165. 

Balboa  crosses  the  isthmus,    166,  167. 
Balboa  unjustly  treated,  167,  168. 
Barcelona,    Columbus      honored     at 

Court,  4-5. 

Basque  Discovery,  32. 
Boston  in  Vinland.  26,  182. 
Brandan,  St.  discoverer,  32. 
Brito,  ship-canal,  172. 
Buccaneers,  origin,  etc.,  169,  170. 
Buffon,  15. 
Burgos,  Bishop  of,  157,  168. 


c. 

CABOT,  38,  48.  49. 
Cabrera  reaches  Brazil,  49. 
Cakama,  prince  of  Tezcuco,  154. 
Calendar  Stone,  83,  84. 
Calicut  reached  by  Gama.  49. 
Canaanites,   etc.,'   sun-worship,    loa, 

103. 

Cannibalism,  102,  103. 
Capac,  Inca,  182,  187. 
Carthage,  17,  102. 
Cathay,  39,  43,  45. 
Cazique.  43,  117,  etc. 
Celtic  discoveries,  19,  30-32. 
Chalco,  Lake,  136,  137. 

191 


192       EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 


Charles  V.  and  Cortes,  164. 

Chiapas.  77. 

Chibchas,  85. 

Cholula,  84,  94,  130,  133. 

Civilization,  Extinct,  chaps,  iii,  ix. 

Civilization,  Celtic,  19. 

Civilization,  Norse,  19-25,  27-31. 

Civilization,  Aztec,  etc.,  54-70,  82,  83. 

Civilization,  Peru,  172-185. 

Colon  (sse  COLUMBUS);  also  an  Atlan- 
tic port  on  the  isthmus  of  Danen, 
172. 

Columbia,  76,  85. 

Columbus,  17-18,  37,  38-46,  157. 

Columbus,  early  failures,  39. 

Columbus,  voyage  to  Iceland,  39. 

Columbus,  variation  of  the  compass, 
41,  42,  49.  _ 

Columbus,  discovers  Bahamas,  Cuba, 
Hayti,  42-44. 

Columbus,  discovers  Trinidad  and 
Orinoco,  45. 

Columbus,  map  by  (found  in  1894),  42. 

Columbus,  autograph  (cut)  and  epi- 
taph, 46. 

Columbus,  Ferdinand,  18;  Bartholo- 
mew, 43. 

Columbus,  Diego.  47,  157. 

Continent,  supposed  southern  (cut), 
12. 

Continent,  Western,  13  (see  ATLANTIS, 
HESPERIDES). 

Condor,  emblem  of  prehistoric  Inca, 
*73'  !?5  (cuts). 

Copan,  79-81. 

Cordova  lands  on  Yucatan,  53. 

Cortes  appointed  leader,  53,  64,  77,  80. 

Cortes  at  Cuba  and  Hayti,  117. 

Cortes  at  Yucatan,  109. 

Cone's  and  Teuhtile,  in,  112. 

Cortes,  generalship.  119,  124,  126,  159. 

Cortes,  resource,  127,  128,  158. 

Cortes,  cruelty,  129,  132,  153. 

Cortes  at  Popocatepetl,  133. 

Cortes  and  Montezuma,  141,  143-143. 

Cortes   lack  of  delicacy,  152. 

Cortes,  arrest  of  Montezuma,  152-157. 

Cortes,  personal  courage,  162. 

Cortes,  retreat,  "Night  of  Sorrows," 
163. 

Cortes,  Mexico  retaken  and  its  em- 
peror hanged,  164. 

Cortes  and  Charles  V.,  164. 

Cliff-houses,  86. 

Cotton,  Az.  tec.,  preparation  of,  84, 
96. 

Cromwell,  his  influence,  170. 

Cruz,  Vera,  no,  114,  120,  156,  157, 163. 


I  Cuba,  43-45,  51-53,  84. 
I  Culhua,  no. 

Cuzco,  174.  176,  181,  183,  188. 
Cuzco,  Cyclopean  remains,  181,  183. 
Cuzco,  temple,  183. 
Cyclopean  ruins  in  Peru,  173,  178,  181— 

183. 

Cyclopean  ruins  in   Peru  (cuts),  173, 
'75- 

D. 

DALRYMPLE,  Sir  John,  169,  170. 
Dampier,  buccaneer,  170. 
Darien,  taken  by  Balboa,  169. 
Darien,  Scottish  Expedition,  169. 
Darien,  causes  of  failure,  169,  170. 
Darien,  crossed  by  Morgan,    170,  171. 
Darien,  crossed  by  Dampier,  171. 
Diaz,  navigator,   rounds  the   Cape  of 

Good    Hope     and     names    it    the 

"  Stormy  Cape,"  49. 
Diaz,  historian,  quoted,  148,  151,  158, 

1 60. 

Dighton  Stone,  28  (cuts,  27,  28). 
Diodorus  Siculus,  16. 
Druid  Sacrifices,  106. 
"Druidic,"  74,  177,  178. 


E. 

EDWARD  VI  and  Cabot,  48. 
Elysian  Fields,  13,  14,  16. 
Erik  the  Red,  30. 
Escobar,  162. 
Euripides,  quoted,  14. 


F. 

FEATHER-WORK,  84,  06. 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  40,  41. 
Feudalism  ended,  36. 


G. 

GAMA,  De,  38,  58. 
Gardens,  138,  139. 
Glazier,  Theory,  73-74. 
Gladstone  quoted,  189. 
Gosnold's  Expedition,  25,  26. 
Greenland,  19-25,  30,  31. 
Grijalva  and  Yucatan,  10,  53. 
Guatemala,  58,  76,  79. 
Guatimozin,  163. 
Gunnbiorn,  20. 


INDEX 


'93 


H. 

HANNIBAL  on  the  Alps,  134,  135. 

Harold  Fair-hair,  20. 

Hatuey,  51,  52. 

Hayti,  43,  98. 

Helluland  (Newfoundland),  33. 

Henry  VII.,  48,49. 

Hercules'  Pillars,  13,  17. 

Herodotus,  10,  n. 

Hesiod,  quoted,  13. 

Hesperides,  Isles  of  the  Blest,  14. 

Homer,  quoted,  10,  13. 

Honduras,  76,  79. 

Huitzilopochtli,  god  of  battles,  93,  94, 

150,  151  (see  MEXITL.) 
Humboldt,  35,  50,  65,  73,  83,  94. 


I. 


ICELAND,  19,  20. 

Incas,  172,  182  (see  PERU). 

"Indian, ''as  a  term  applied  to  the 
New  World  by  mistake,  a  blunder 
still  perpetuated,  42  (cf.  98. 

Indians,   "Red-skins,"  72-74,  80,  90. 

Ingolf,  19. 

Iphigenia,  104. 

Ireland,  Mickle,  20,  31,  32. 

Italian  Discovery,  34-36. 

Itztli  (obsidian),  used  as  a  sharp  flint, 

95- 
Iztapalapan,  138. 


JAMAICA,  170. 

Jewish  "Discovery,"  33. 

Juan,  S.,  ship-canal,  173. 


K. 

KATORTUK  (Greenland),  21,  33  (cut, 
Kingsborough,  Lord,  34,  69,  82. 

L. 

LEIF  ERIKSON,  21-23. 
Lesseps  de,  171-173. 
Loadstone,  41,  42. 
Longfellow,  quoted,  29. 
Lucian,  quoted,  17. 

13 


M. 

MADOC,  32,  33,  70. 

Magellan  reaches  the  Pacific  Ocean 

and  names  it,  49 ;   killed  at  Matan, 

So- 
Magnetic  Pole,  41. 
Maguey  plant,  its  singular  value,  94. 
Major,  Mr.,  on  Pre-Columbian  discov- 
eries of   America,  and   site  of  the 

Greenland  colonies,  35,  36. 
Malte  Brun,  35. 
Marina,  "slave-interpreter,"  109,  115, 

128,  131. 
Markham,  Sir  C.,  quoted,  30,  174,  179, 

183. 

Markland  (Nova  Scotia),  22. 
Marvels,  Age  of,  38,  39. 
Maya,  Mayapan,  76,  79. 
Maya,  MS.,  81,  82. 
Maya,  trade,  84. 
Mayflower  lands  in  Vinland,  36. 
Medea,  18,  104. 
Merida,  78. 

Mexico,  Mexicans  (see  also  AZTECS). 
Mexico,  archeology,  72-86. 
Mexico,  geography,  89,  90,  133—135. 
Mexico,  valley,  134,  135. 
Mexico,  town,  139.  142,  145-151. 
Mexico,  wealth,  155. 
Mexico,  siege,  160-164. 
Mexico,  ferocity  in  war,  160-164. 
Mexitl.   the  god   of    battles,   another 

name  for  Huitzilopochtli,  93. 
Monolith  (cuts),  173,  175. 
Montezuma  I.,  57. 
Montezuma,  110-113. 
Montezuma,  meaning  of  name,  113. 
Montezuma,  power.  120,  121,  135,  141. 
Montezuma,  affability,  144. 
Montezuma,  dress,  etc.,  161. 
Montezuma.  death,  162. 
Montgomery,  James,  20,  22,  23. 
Morgan,  buccaneer,  170. 
Mound  builders,  31,  71,  85. 
Miiller,  Max,  quoted,  56. 


N. 

NARVAEZ,  158,  159. 
Nicaragua,  ship-canal,  58,  173. 
Norse  Discovery,  19-32. 
Norse  towns  in  Greenland,  20. 

Norumbega,  25. 


194       EXTINCT  CIVILIZATIONS   OF  THE  WEST 


O. 

OCEAN,  Western,  12,  16,  17. 

Ocean,  Southern,  first  name  for  the 

Atlantic  (q.v.) 
Oceanus,  river,  10. 
Ogygia,  1 6. 

Ollantay,  Peru,  174,  176, 
Orinoco,  discovered,  45. 
Orizaba,  120. 
Overland  Route,  37. 

P. 

PACIFIC,  first  seen,  166. 

Pacific,  first  sailed  upon,  501 

Palenque,  77,  79,  81. 

Palos,  41,  45. 

Panama,  166,  171,  172. 

Panama,  modern,  171. 

Paper  (prehistoric)  of  Mexico,  82. 

Pedrarias,  167,  168. 

Peru  and  Incas,  chaps,  ix.,  x. 

Peru  agriculture,  182,  185. 

Peru  aqueducts,  roads,  etc.,  177. 

Peru  archeology,  172-182. 

Peru  architecture,  87,  172-178. 

Peru  calendar,  184,  183. 

Peru  chulpas,  87  (cut). 

Peru  quipu,  180  (cut). 

Peru  sculpture  and  pottery,  178. 

Peru  history  and  religion,  182. 

Phenicians,  n,  17. 

Pictograph.  80,  112. 

Pindar,  quoted,  13. 

Pizarro,  164,  167. 

Pizarro  and  Atahualpha,  187,  188. 

Pirarro  and  Peru,  186-189. 

Pizarro,  first  and  second  voyages,  186, 

187. 

Pizarro  imitated  Balboa,  165,  186. 
Pizarro  invades  Peru,  187. 
Pizarro,  his  treachery  and  cruelty,  188, 

189. 

Pizarro  at  Cusco,  188. 
Pizarro  founds  Lima,  188. 
Pizarro,  "  Doom  "  at  last,  189. 
Plato,  14,  15. 
Plutarch,  16. 
Polo,  Marco,  39,  43. 
Polyxena,  104. 
Popocatepetl,  133,  134. 
Ptolemy,  n,  39, 
Pythagorean  theory,  10. 

Q- 

QUETZALCOATL,    84,   93,    94,    III,    113, 
IJO,   152. 

Quipu,  180,  181  (cut,  180). 


R. 

RAFN,  28,  29,  31. 

Raymi,  Peruvian  festival,  184,  185. 

Renascence,  9.  36,  37. 

Renascence   influence  on   travel  and 

exploration,  38. 
Renascence  assisted  the  Reformation, 

Runes  in  Greenland,  27,  28. 


SEBASTIAN,  Magellan's   Basque  lieu- 
tenant, 33,  50. 
Seneca,  18,  icj  (title-page). 
"  Scraelings,  '  Vinland,  23. 
"  Skeleton  in  Armor,"  29. 
Spain,  how  consolidated,  37,  106. 
Spain,  close  of  its  colonial  history,  52. 
Squier,  quoted,  176,  i3i. 


T. 

TAMBOS,  Peru,  185. 
Tehuantepec,  isthmus,  171. 
Tenochtitlan,  Mexico,  57. 
Teocalli,  106,  117,  148-151,  156  (cut. 

,  I05)' 

Tezcatlipoca,  god  of  youth,  61. 
Tezcuco,  eastern  capital,  Mexico,  56. 
Tezcuco,  56,  57,  136. 
Tezcuco,  king  of,  too. 
Tezcuco,  lake,  139-140. 
Thorfinn,  23. 
Thorwaldsen,  23. 
Titicaca,  lake,  71,  182. 
Titicaca  (see  CYCLOPEAN  RUINS),  174, 

175- 

Tlaloc,  god  of  rain,  63. 
Tlascala,  113,   121-127,  130,  153,  155, 

163. 

Tlascala,  people,  and  siege,  130,  133. 
Toltecs,  56,  71. 

Totonacs,  115.  , 

Trinidad,  45. 
Tula,  56. 

Tumbez,  Peru,  186. 
Turks,  causing  civilization,  36,  38. 


U. 

UTATLA,  79. 

Uxmal,  55,  76  (frontispiece). 


INDEX 


195 


V. 

VALLADOLID,  46. 

Velasquez,  51-53,  107,  108,  158. 

Vesper,  14  (see  HESPERIDES). 

Vespucci,  49,  51,  52. 

Vinland  (New  England),  23,  25. 

Vinland,  map  of,  24. 

Voltaire,  story  of  Cortes,  164. 


W. 

WALDSEEMOLLER,  50. 

Watling's  Island,  42. 

Welsh  Discovery,  32,  33. 

William  III.  and  Darien  Scheme,  16 

169. 

Wilson,  "  Prehistoric  Man,"  26,  81. 
World,  shape  of,  9-11. 


X. 

XALAPA,  120. 

Xicotencatl,  Tlascalan,  124,  126,  117- 

130. 
Xicotencatl  appearance,  129. 

Y. 

YOCHICALCO,  86. 
Yucatan,  53,  54,  75-77. 

Z. 

ZEMPOALLA,  "  conversion  of,"  116. 

Zempoalla,  119,  158,  159. 

Zeni,  Italian  brothers,  34-35. 

Zeno  map,  34,  35. 

Zipango  (Japan),  39,  45. 

Zodiac,  comparative,  55. 

Zodiac  (cut)  from  a  tomb  at  Cusco,  182. 


(4) 


8  2 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


JUU  2  8  1931 


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JAN 

'*•'  11^38 
MAR  1 3  1940 


P  7    1944 

^^,1 


1945 
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gB6  1  0  1991 


